Test 2 (My Study Guide)

Question 1

Short Term Memory Capacity

Answer 1

• Slide includes:
  
  • Short term memory span
  • George Miller
  • Chunking

Question 2

Short Term Memory Span

Answer 2

-The number of items that can be recalled in order after a brief delay; span delay task

Question 3

George Miller

Answer 3

• 1956: Magic number 7 +- 2

- (actually 7 +- 2 chunks of material, not items)

Question 4

Chunking (recoding)

Answer 4

• Grouping small units into a larger more meaningful unit that can be a single item
• EX: OMGDIYFAQLOL → 4 items, not 12

Question 5

Chunking and Expertise

Answer 5

• Chase and Simon, 1973:
• Compare chess experts and novices
  
  • Experts >- 10,000 hours
  • Novices < 10,000 hours
• Show pictures of chess pieces on a board for 5 seconds
  
  • Random positions (IV)
  • Game positions (IV)
• Ask subject to recall positions
  
  • Chess experts did way outperform beginners

Question 6

What’s the duration of STM?

Answer 6

• 18 seconds

- Not necessarily 18 seconds and not due to decay

Question 7

How do we forget STM info?

Answer 7

-Two theories: Decay vs. Interference

• Decay Hypothesis:
  
  • Lack of use and increases with time
  • Forgetting is permanent
• Proactive Interference Hypothesis:
  
  • Competition with other memories
  • Increases with more information and similarity
  • Forgetting can be temporary
• Proactive interference is the primary cause of forgetting in STM
• BUT decay hypothesis could work with an appropriate neural mechanism

Question 8

Brown-Peterson Paradigm

Answer 8

• Studied STM duration
• About 15-30 seconds
• Set of 3 letters to remember, then random 3-digit number and have to count down by 3s, then asked to recall what 3 letters were
• Looking at time it takes to forget info
• How much info retained at 3 seconds and all the way up to 18 seconds?
• Short-term memory looks like it lasts 18 seconds (due to decay)?
• But these data are averaged over many trials
• Not necessarily 18 seconds and definitely not decay – it’s because they’re getting confused on other letters

Question 9

Two Theories of Forgetting

Answer 9

-Decay and Interference

Question 10

Decay Hypothesis

Answer 10

• Lack of use and increases with time
• Forgetting is permanent
• Bad hypothesis because time doesn’t cause anything, it just exists
• But could work with an appropriate neural mechanism

Question 11

Proactive Interference Hypothesis

Answer 11

• Competition with other memories
• Increases with more information and similarity
• Forgetting can be temporary
• Ex: of forgetting why you went into a room. You can remember if you go back to where you were
• Performance decreases with more trials because proactive interference

Question 12

Proactive and Retroactive Interference

Answer 12

• Proactive:
  
  • Old learning interferes with new learning
  • Ex: old parking → new parking; going back to where you parked yesterday
  • ”Active over present”
• Retroactive:
  
  • New learning interferes with old learning
  • Ex: 1st face ← 2nd face; remembering first guy’s name is hard because you met new guy
  • ”active over rectro”

Question 13

STM Characteristics

Answer 13

• What’s the duration of STM?
• Brown Peterson Paradigm → About 15-30 seconds
• Always old and new info
• Degree of PI depends on similarity (more similar, more interference)
• What’s the capacity of STM?
• Miller’s “magic number” → 7 +- 2
• What’s the mechanism of forgetting in STM?
  
  • Decay vs. interference → proactive interference

Question 14

Problems with STM concept

Answer 14

• Assumption that info goes through STM to get to LTM (Modal Model)
  
  • Some patients with STM but not LTM deficits; not all long-term memory has to go through STM
• Little correlation of span to higher order cognitive processes
  
  • Ex: counting cards; for reading

-The STM concept needs to be revised

Question 15

Working Memory

Answer 15

-Baddeley’s Working Memory Model (new theory):
-Central Executive: attentional control; executive functions
-Visuospatial Sketchpad
-Visual Semantics ←>
-Episodic Buffer
- Episodic LTM
-Phonological Loop
- Language
→ STM

Question 16

Central Executive

Answer 16

• Executive Functions:
  
  • Inhibition: ability to inhibit dominant automatic response (ex: stroop task)
    
    • better/higher executive functioning → good at stroop
  • Task switching: ability to switch between tasks, operations, or mental sets
  • Updating, monitoring information: monitoring, coping with changing circumstances
    
    • Ex: bartenders; cooking

Question 17

Phonological Loop

Answer 17

• 1. Phonological store
• 2. Articulatory loop: ability to rehearse info to yourself; inner voice
     - These are the two components
• Realtime speech matters:
  
  • Word length effect
  • Cardiologist, situational vs. pen, sit
  • Can remember better shorter words (like pen and sit)
  • Phonological loop (“pen, sit, fat, cat” easier than “cardiologist, situational, etc.”)
• Need the AL to keep info active
  
  • Articulatory suppression effect
  • the, the, the, the, the…
  • Difficult to say one thing out loud while trying to listen and remember other info
  • Articulatory loop
• It’s just phonological
  
  • Phonological similarity effect
  • tdvg vs. tknw

Question 18

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Answer 18

• Imagine your place growing up, mentally walk through it, and count the windows
• 1. Generating image (LTM retrieval coordinated by CE)
• 2. Hold the info in mind and manipulate it (CE and VS)
• 3. Count and manipulate (CE and VS)
• Used for generating visual imagery and maintaining it
  
  • Ex: of looking at picture of trash cans and redrawing it
• Tied to real-world attributes of objects
• Influenced by knowledge and expectations (top-down processing)
• *RTs are related to the degree of rotation

Question 19

Two Ways to Measure WM

Answer 19

• Dual task method

- Working memory span

Question 20

Dual Task

Answer 20

• Do 2 tasks at the same time, 1 is primary (main task) and 1 is secondary additional task)
  
  • Interference between tasks?
  • If they can be done at the same time without interfering with each other, they use different mental resources
  • If they interfere with each other, they share mental resources
• Reasoning Task (Primary):
  
  • Active: A precedes B
  • Passive: B is preceded by A
  • Negative Active: B does not precede A
  • Negative Passive: A is not preceded by B
• Secondary Task:
  
  • Control Condition: silent
  • Articulatory Suppression: the the the the
  • Repeated Numbers: 123456, 123456…
  • Random Numbers: 41739329046…

Question 21

Executive Function and the Individual Differences Approach

Answer 21

• Working memory capacity (WMC) is related to higher order cognitive functions (e.g., SAT)
• Need to measure WMC differences between people
• High WMC
• Low WMC

Question 22

Simple Span Task

Answer 22

-Measures short term stores – visuospatial, phonological

Question 23

Complex Span Tasks

Answer 23

• Measures whole system – short term stores + processing

- Measures WMC

Question 24

WM Capacity

Answer 24

-Complex learning

• Reasoning
• SAT scores
• Note taking
• Vocabulary learning
• Following directions
• Reading comprehension
• Bridge playing
• Dichotic listening
• Selective attention
• Pilot performance
• Stroop interference

Question 25

Kane et. al., 2007: Background and Hypothesis

Answer 25

• Background:
  
  • WMC known to predict lab tasks
  • WMC known to predict formal intellectual tasks outside the ab
  • What about basic everyday experiences?
  • Is WMC related to how often you experience mind wandering?
• Hypothesis:
  
  • Low WMC should make mind wandering more likely when tasks require focused concentration
  • Design:
    
    • Measure WMC
    • Sample mind wandering in daily life
    • Look at the relationship

Question 26

Kane et. al., 2007: Procedure

Answer 26

• 1. WMC measures
• 2. PDA and Experience Sampling Methodology
• 3. Random beeps 8 times a day for 7 days
• At the time of the beep, my mind had wandered to something other than what I was doing
• I was surprised that my mind had wandered
• I allowed my thoughts to wander on purpose
• I was daydreaming or fantasizing about something
• I was worrying about something
• I was thinking about normal, everyday things

Question 27

Kane et. al., 2007: Results

Answer 27

-1. Regardless of WMC, what predicted wandering?

• 2. Complex relationship
     - Not just more WMC → less wandering
• The degree of mind wandering depends on WMC and degree of concentration
• Low WMC tend to mind wander more as the task becomes more challenging/effortful

Question 28

Kane et. al., 2007: Conclusions

Answer 28

• The relationship between WMC and mind wandering depends on the situation
• Low WMC more likely to mind wander in challenging or effortful situations, and when concentrating
• High spans less likely to mind wander when concentrating, but wandering isn’t much affected by challenge or effort

Question 29

Stroop Task

Answer 29

• Always incongruent → equal performance

- 20% incongruent → high spans do better

Question 30

Stereotype Threat

Answer 30

-Performing poorly on a task when a relevant stereotype is made salient in a performance situation

Why?

- Anxiety (stereotype-threat increases anxiety); negative emotions eat up WM capacity
- Cognition?

-Schmader & Johns

Question 31

Shmader & Johns, 2003

Answer 31

• Subjects:
• Women and men (grouping variable)
• 500 or greater on quant SAT (2003 scores)
• Agreed there was a stereotype about women and math
• Independent Variable:
  
  • Control: study is about working memory
  • Threat: study is about quantitative capacity
• Research Question: Leveled everybody out, just tested
• When quantitative capacity was brought in (threat), women decreased in performance
• 2nd Experiment:
  
  • Control: only women and told it’s about problem solving
  • Concluded: Yes, stereotypes reduce WM resources

Question 32

LTM Broken Down

Answer 32

• Declarative (on left)
  
  • ”knowing that”
  • memory for facts and events; memory you can declare
  • can express verbally? At least partially declarative
  • ex: you know who Abe Lincoln is if you see a picture of him, but you don’t remember when you first learned about him/who he was (fact); what you did for your last b-day (event)
• Nondeclarative (on right)
  
  • ”knowing how”
  • skills → “muscle memory”
  • difficult to describe verbally
  • ex: know how to type, but don’t know how to describe; playing sports; playing instrument

Question 33

Declarative Memory Broken Down

Answer 33

• Episodic (on left)
  
  • Memory for specific events
  • Accompanied by contextual details: time, place, etc.
  • Ex: what you did for your last birthday; when you first learned to ride bike; what you did for last b-day
• Semantic (on right)
  
  • General knowledge and facts about the world
  • Can’t specify a particular event in which you learned it
  • Ex: what a bike is; can’t remember first time you learned who Abe Lincoln was, but recognize him

Question 34

Episodic Memory

Answer 34

• 1. Encoding:
     - incidental (not trying to remember)
     - intentional (something you’re specifically trying to remember)
• 2. Storage
     - About 3 minutes to lifespan
• 3. Retrieval
     - Recall (don’t have good cause?)
     - Recognition (run into someone you know and recognize them)

Question 35

Important Variables at Encoding

Answer 35

• 1. Time or frequency
• 2. Massed vs. distributed practice
• 3. Generation effect
• 4. Levels of processing
• 5. Organization and distinctiveness
• 6. Emotion
• 7. Using mnemonics

Question 36

Massed vs. Distributed Practice

Answer 36

-Massed = cramming

• Bloom & Schuell, 2001
  
  • High school French

-General Principle: Distributed practice leads to better memory than massed practice

Question 37

Generation Effect

Answer 37

-Generate condition deep better than reading condition

• Generate:
  
  • Associative: doctor n_____
  • Category: furniture t_____
  • Opposite: hot c_____
  • Synonym: hot c_____
  • Rhyme: hot p_____
• Read:
  
  • doctor nurse
  • furniture table
  • hot cold
  • hot warm
  • hot pot

-Easier to remember info that you have to generate

• Enactment:
  
  • Full enactment: act it out; straight into it
  • Verbal run through: read through script
  • Memorization: just go learn it

-General Principle: Generating the information leads to better memory

Question 38

Levels of Processing

Answer 38

• Test of recalling list of words you counted e’s in, and recall list of words you related to yourself
• The way you process the information at encoding matters (a lot)
• Shallow encoding: attending to surface characteristics, or rote rehearsal
  
  • Ex: counting number of e’s; rote rehearsal; repeating over and over to yourself
    
    • Rote: ex: learning times tables
• Deep encoding: attending to meaning, elaborating, drawing relationships
  
  • Ex: drawing out concept maps when studying (trying to find relationships between ideas); ex: relating things to yourself

Question 39

Levels of Processing: Lab Example

Answer 39

• Typeface: caps or lowercase?
• Rhyme: Does it rhyme with eagle?
• Category: Is it a bird?
• Sentence: Does it fit in this sentence: She forgot her _____ at the office.
• Typeface and rhyme are extreme shallow
• Category and sentence are extreme deep
• On average, the more deeply something is processed, the more likely is it that you’ll remember it

Question 40

Organization and Distinctiveness

Answer 40

• Organization: grouping individual items into larger units based on similarities
  
  • Like chunking, expect for LTM
• Distinctiveness: uniqueness, novel, or isolated items
  
  • Ex: guy in red shirt stands out in crowd of people wearing all white
• How can both be true? Depends on kind of info you’re trying to remember
• List 1 duck, robin, hawk, chicken, vulture (trying to think of differences)
• List 2: duck, round, sock, cabin, vision (trying to think of how they’re similar)
• For better memory:
  
  • If items to be remembered are similar, it’s best to think about their differences
    
    • Ex: trying to study all presidents, think about their differences
  • If items to be remembered are distinct, it’s best to think about their similarities
    
    • Ex: trying to learn a bunch of unrelated things, try to find how they’re similar

Question 41

Emotion

Answer 41

• Sharot & Yonelinas, 2007
  
  • Shown neutral pictures and emotional items
  • Emotional pictures remembered better (after time has passed)
• Variable important at encoding
• General Principle: Memory is better for emotionally arousing items compared to neutral items

Question 42

Using Mnemonics

Answer 42

• Memory as a sport
  
  • Ex:guy memorized deck of 52 cards
• How? Method of Loci
  
  • Choose a known location (ex: campus)
  • Choose a path through that location (ex: path you walk commonly)
  • Mental image of items and put it in places around that location
  • Would have to repeat many times to get it

Question 43

Encoding Specificity

Answer 43

• Scenario: You’re talking to a friend, and you refer to a past interaction with another person. Your friend doesn’t remember what you’re talking about. What do you do to try to get them to remember?
  
  • Give them cues (cues are present at encoding and at test)
• Ex: study word pairs related or unrelated: going to remember same cue better:
• Study Cue:
  
  • Related (hot cold)
    
    • Test Cue: same (hot ????); different (spy ????)
  • Unrelated (spy cold)
    
    • Test Cue: same (spy ????); different (hot ????)
• General Principle: The best cues are things that were present at the time of encoding (context, thoughts, feelings, etc.)
  
  • So studying in classroom where you will take test will make you do better on the test

Question 44

Transfer Appropriate Processing

Answer 44

• What would you do if a professor refused to tell you the format of the exams?
• LOP principle is that deep encoding best. What if you’re tested on shallow info?
• Memory is best when the kind of processing you do at study matches (or is most appropriate) for what you do at test

Question 45

What’s the difference between encoding specificity and transfer appropriate processing?

Answer 45

-Encoding specificity → about cues

-TAP → about how things are processed; about how you’re processing things (not what, but HOW)
1.
2. Task knowledge important, but for it to transfer, you have to practice with actual x-rays

-Context effects; using the context (physical or mental) to cue the info. Studying in the same room as test. Which one is it?

-You’re in a radiology class learning how to read x-rays. Your ultimate goal is to spot abnormalities. Your teacher gives you a textbook to learn but nothing else. What’s the problem?
1.
    2. Task knowledge important, but for it to transfer, you have to practice with actual x-r

Question 46

Forgetting

Answer 46

• Decay
• Interference
• Retrieval failure

Question 47

Decay

Answer 47

-Information is lost over time

• Time treated as the causal mechanism (its causing memory loss)
  
  • Bad scientific idea
  • Ex: time alone doesn’t cause body to decay; it’s a lot of factors (like bacteria)

Question 48

Interference

Answer 48

• Old (proactive) and/or new (retroactive) information interferes with retrieval (professor is focusing on retroactive)
• New (retroactive) focus

Question 49

Decay vs. Retroactive Interference

Answer 49

• 1. Immediate Recall:
     - no time for decay or interference
     - this is the control
• 2. Unfilled Delay:
     - Allow time for decay
     - not doing anything during delay, so shouldn’t be much interference
• 3. Filled decay:
     - Time for decay and interference
     - Have them do something (like math problems)

-So decay isn’t as good a theory as interference is

Question 50

Retrieval Failure

Answer 50

• Haven’t permanently forgotten something; just can’t reach it right now
• Availability: information has been encoded; it could potentially be retrieved
• Accessibility: information is able to be retrieved; can be retrieved at any moment
• Tip of the tongue: → information is available, but not accessible
  
  • That info is encoded, you know where it is, just can’t get
  • Ex: taking test, remember where in your notes the answer is, but can’t reach it!

Question 51

Amnesia

Answer 51

-Retrograde vs. anterograde amnesia

• H.M. Henry Molaison (memory research hero)
  
  • Feb. 26, 1926 - Dec. 2, 2008
  • Had bad epilepsy, and they removed his hippocampus
  • He participated in many memory research studies
  • Did mirror drawing task: it’s not like his procedural memory is going away; he gets better and better, he just doesn’t remember doing task the previous days
• Clive Wearing:
  
  • Worst case of amnesia
  • Same guy we talked about in Psych. 308 – musician/conductor
  • He’s different because his short-term memory is impaired; “constant awakening”
  • Images of brain – (E.P. = basic anterograde and some retro, best case; G.P. = next worse; G.T. = worst case (most white)
• *Not all memory is impaired in anterograde amnesia (hippocampal damage)
• Nondeclarative memory spared (e.g., piano playing, mirror drawing)
• Semantic memory spared (background and knowledge of world; Clive still knew what diary was for example)
• Working memory spared (H.M. = typical - his WM was intact; Clive = not typical - WM impaired)
• Unconscious/unintentional uses of memory spared → implicit memory

Question 52

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 52

• Inability to get previously encoded long-term episodic memory
• Birth (good) Time (getting better) —> time of trauma (bad, but gets better further back into time) today (good)

Question 53

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 53

• After people have trauma, they can’t encode new memory
• Damage to hippocampus and part of cortex – hippocampus is not plastic, so it doesn’t fix itself
• Usually, see anterograde amnesia with SOME retrograde amnesia
• Birth (good) Time (good) —> time of trauma (bad) today (bad)

Question 54

Implicit Memory

Answer 54

-Influence of prior experience (something you just experienced) on behavior without an attempt to (or awareness of) remember

• Expressed by an increase in speed or increased probability of a response
  
  • Increased probability ex: friend uses a word you don’t use often, and you notice you use it later that day or more often
  • Increase in Speed Ex:
• Encoding phase: ?
• Test phase: (old, old, new)
  - *In both phases, name each object as quickly as possible
  - *Faster to name things they were just exposed to

-Supported by different brain regions; the hippocampus is not typically involved

Question 55

How can you use encoding variables to study better?

Answer 55

• Time/frequency:
• Massed vs. distributed: distribute studying over some time
• Generation:
• Levels of Processing: look at relationships between principles; relate it to yourself; deep processing
• Organization and Distinctiveness:
• Emotion:
• Mnemonics:
• Encoding Specificity:
• Transfer Appropriate Processing:
• Testing Effect: idea/finding that you get better the more you’re tested (ex: recap quizzes before class; ex: flash cards)

Question 56

Semantic Memory

Answer 56

• Facts about the world not tied to specific events
• Ex: we know coffee is a liquid; we can answer hundreds of questions about coffee, yet we don’t remember when we learned the information
• Ex: we knew which person was likely to say, “Man, I really need a cup of coffee right now
• How do we know? You pick up info that’s woven into your memory without you having to sit down and learn exactly what it is

Question 57

Collins, Quillian, & Loftus Node Network Model

Answer 57

-One way to answer: “How is knowledge organized?”

• Proposed structure of semantic memory
  
  • Network of nodes (node = concept)
    
    • ”isa” = is a
    • ”p” property of
  • Connections
    
    • Directional
    • Labeled
• Retrieval of information
  
  • Spreading activation
    
    • Node is activated
    • Activation spreads through network (ex: someone says “robin” and that becomes active in your mind, so node is active, so now, you spread activation to first layer of connections, then next level, then next level)
    • Spreading takes time
    • Activation weakens with spread
    • Activation fades over time

Question 58

Testing Network Models (Collins, Quillian, & Loftus)

Answer 58

• Sentence verification
  
  • Looks at how long it takes them to reach a certain layer
  • ”A canary can sing” = fastest
  • ”A canary can fly” = middle
  • ”A canary has skin” = slowest
• Semantic priming
  
  • works with RT too
• robin → prime
  
  • XXXX → mask
  • milk yes/no → lexical decision (lexical decision = deciding if something is a word or not)
• robin → prime
  
  • XXXX → mask
  • bird yes/no → lexical decision
  -”milk” = slower; “bird” = faster

Question 59

Limitations of Network Models (Collins, Quillian, & Loftus)

Answer 59

-Original model doesn’t account for:

• 1) Semantic relatedness
  - How related two concepts are (e.g., eyes is less related to bird than feathers)
• 2) Typicality effect
  - Faster retrieval if members are more typical (a chicken is a bird is slower than a robin is a bird)

Question 60

Revised Network Model

Answer 60

• Connections reflect associative strength and typicality

- Longer the line, the longer it takes activation to spread along that line

Question 61

Connectionist Models

Answer 61

• Processing a lot of things at once
• A neural network model of category-specific impairments
• A single system with functional and visual features; visual features and functional features
• Simulating the effects of brain damage by “lesioning” the model:
  
  • Took model and damaged one of the features (to mimic lesions)
  • When took out visual features (worse?)
  • When took out functional features (not as bad?)

Question 62

Semantic Memory Structure

Answer 62

• Semantic memory structure → networks of nodes or representations
  
  • Connectionist models

-How does that knowledge affect other types of cognition tasks?

Question 63

Bransford & Johnson, 1972

Answer 63

• Did narrative comprehension and recall
• 1st condition: no context; just passage
• 2nd condition: context after
• 3rd condition: partial context
• 4th condition: context before
• How does giving people background knowledge help them comprehend?
  
  • Semantic memory is needed for many things, like understanding a narrative

Question 64

Schema

Answer 64

• A stored framework or body of knowledge about some topic
• Ex: we have a schema of a kitchen (what’s in it)
• Help set expectations for what we’re going to experience/what we expect

Question 65

Schemas and Scripts

Answer 65

• Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts:
  
  • Had people read Native American folktale/fairytale
• People tended to remember schema-consistent information (even if not in the story)
  
  • People remembered things that were like actual tales, some stuff wasn’t even in the story

-People tended to forget schema-inconsistent information

• Tells us that:
• Schemas can help or hurt episodic memory
  - Benefit: organization (ex: go into friend’s kitchen; they ask you what was in it, and you use schema to help you
  - Cost: over-generation (ex: friend bought apartment and realized there was no oven because just figured there would be one); may make you miss details that aren’t really there

-*Memory is not a video recorder. Much of the time it is an active process of reconstruction

Question 66

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues

Answer 66

-Reliance on stereotypes (stereotypes like schemas of people)

• Source memory
  
  • Either have it or don’t
• The role of stereotypes in source attributions for biographical events
• How does processing capacity affect likelihood of stereotype-driven attributions?
• How do these questions demonstrate an interplay between semantic and episodic memory? What’s semantic? What’s episodic?

Question 67

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues - Purpose

Answer 67

-Examine the effect of stereotypes on source memory

• What does it mean to attribute a memory to a source?
  
  • Decide where the memory came from (List 1 or List 2)

Question 68

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues - Hypothesis

Answer 68

• Hypothesized stereotypes would affect us
• Stereotypes are heuristics
• We’ll depend on them when our cognitive resources are taxed; we’ll depend on them when our memory isn’t working
• How do these questions demonstrate an interplay between semantic memory and episodic memory? What’s semantic? What’s episodic?
  
  • Source decision, deciding who did what, that’s episodic decision. Stereotype is semantic. Semantic doesn’t have to be right

Question 69

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues - Method

Answer 69

• Day 1:
• List 1:
  
  • Created by experts
  • Helped an old lady cross the street
  • Got angry with a store clerk
  • Got stuck in traffic on the way to work
• List 2: Bob Hamilton
  
  • Skinhead or priest
  • Gave a quarter to a stranger
  • Shoved his way to the center seat at a movie theater
  • Bought a new shirt
• Day 2:
  
  • Gave a quarter to a stranger
    
    • Reported by Bob or not?
  • Got angry with a store clerk
    
    • Reported by Bob or not?
  • Held the door open for a man carrying boxes
    
    • Reported by Bob or not?
• Divided attention: remember: 35816954
• IV: behavior type, Bob, processing capacity
• DV: source decision (Was it Bob or not?)
• Priest: Friendly consistent and unfriendly inconsistent
• Skinhead: Friendly inconsistent and unfriendly consistent
  
  • Didn’t care about List 2

Question 70

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues - Results

Answer 70

• Are people likely to rely on stereotypes in source decisions?
  
  • Normal Capacity: Making a lot of errors, but not using stereotypes; bars equal
  • Lowered Capacity: Were more likely to make less errors for stereotype-consistent

-Does it depend on processing capacity?

Question 71

Sherman & Bessenoff, 1999: Stereotypes as source cues - Take Home Message

Answer 71

-People will rely on stereotypes when trying to remember source, but usually only when capacity is reduced

• We rely on semantic memory when our ability to retrieve from episodic memory is undermined
  
  • Ex: trying to remember friend’s kitchen. Having trouble, so you use semantic memory to help if episodic memory isn’t working?

Question 72

Topics for Memory

Answer 72

• aging and memory
• false memory
• repressed/recovered memory debate
• metamemory

Question 73

Aging and Memory… Across the lifespan

Answer 73

-Cognitive abilities peak between age 20 and 40

• Matrix Reasoning:
  
  • Peak: 22; First Age Diff: 27
• Spatial Relations:
  
  • Peak: 22; First Age Diff: 32
• Word Recall:
  
  • Peak: 27; First Age Diff: 37
• Logical Memory:
  
  • Peak: 22; First Age Diff: 37
• Paired Associates:
  
  • Peak: 22; First Age Diff: 42
• Pattern Comparison:
  
  • Peak: 22; First Age Diff: 37
• Many but not all cognitive process decline with age
  
  • Declide: WM, episodic, speed of processing
    
    • more controlled
  • Spared: semantic memory, implicit memory
    
    • more automatic

Question 74

False Memory

Answer 74

• DRM effect
  
  • Deese, Roediger, and McDermott
• List said out loud, list related to “foot”, but writing “foot” would be a false memory; not in list
• Free recall
• People good at remembering studied words, quite a few remember “critical lures” (foot), and some people remembered unstudied words (random guesses)

Question 75

Leading Questions

Answer 75

• Eyewitness memory
• Study: watch video of car accident
• Questioning the witness: How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?
  
  • Smashed (highest speed estimated)
  • Collided
  • Bumped into
  • Hit
  • Contacted (lowest speed estimated)
• Most biased: smashed or contacted
• Most neutral: hit
• Reason why we make sure police use neutral words the best they can

Question 76

Misinformation Effect

Answer 76

• Had people watch accident happen
  
  • Car passes a yield or stop sign
  • Then, there was a delay (20 mins to a week)
  • Questionnaire
  • 3 conditions:
    
    • Controlled: no sign
      
      • Started out well, but decreased performance (forgot)
    • Consistent: saw stop sign and question using “stop”
      
      • Performed well-above chance
• Inconsistent (misleading): saw yield but given question using “stop”
  - Performed below chance (more likely to remember misleading info than real info)

Question 77

Implanted Memory: Lost in a Mall

Answer 77

-Chris and his older brother:
Day 1: ”Remember when you got lost? We were in the mall. Remember? The old man found you and brought you back?”

• Day 2: “That day, I was so scared that I would never see my family again. I knew I was in trouble”
• Day 3: “My mother told me to never do that again”
• Day 4: Remembering specific details “I also remember the old man’s flannel shirt”
• Day 14: “I was with you guys for a second and I think I went over to look at the toy store, the Kay-bee toy and uh, we got lost and I was looking around and I thought, “Uh-oh. I’m in trouble now”…
• Debriefing: still has memory itself “Really? I thought I remembered being lost… and looking around for you guys. I do remember that. And then crying, and Mom coming up and saying ‘Where are you? Don’t you – don’t you ever do that again’.”
• He created a memory
• Consistently 25% of participants will create a false memory

Question 78

Implanted Memories: Childhood Stories

Answer 78

• Session 1:
  
  • 3 childhood stories (2 true, 1 false – slime)
    
    • Got from parents (the two true ones)
  • Elementary class photo cue for half the subjects (irrelevant to stories)
  • Memory report
    
    • No photo: most had no images or memories; medium saw images but no memories; few had actual memories
    • Photo: no memories or images and images but no memories equal; a little less said they had memory

-Go home and think about it

• Session 2:
  
  • Another memory report
    
    • No photo: about same as session 1, but images but no memories and memories about the same (memories increased)
    • Photo: most had memories, few had no memories or images, and even fewer had images, not memories

Question 79

Repressed/Recovered Memory: The Claim

Answer 79

• A childhood event that is so traumatic that memory of it was inhibited, and later recovered in childhood
  
  • e.g., abuse, but also satanic ritual abuse, past lives, abduction by aliens
• AN increase in the 90’s in reports of recovered memories of abuse appearing in the media
  
  • Roseanne Barr
  • Miss America (1958)

Question 80

Repressed/Recovered Memory: The Debate

Answer 80

-For (i.e., it’s real) vs. Against (it’s a myth)

• For:
  
  • Evidence that suppression can cause some forgetting
  • A couple of corroborated cases (other family member comes out and says it did happen)
• Against:
  
  • It’s easy to create false memories and some therapists used methods that do so
    
    • Repressed memories contradict what we know about memory
    • Difficult to suppress thoughts of highly emotional events
    • People can forget that they remembered
    • Retractions and research

Question 81

Metamemory

Answer 81

• Metacognition specific to memory
  - Thoughts and beliefs that are specific to your memory

-Knowledge about how memory works (both in general and specific to you)

• Ex of metamemory judgements:
• Asking directions:
  
  • ”It’s a right, then the 2nd left past the 3rd stop light…” (deciding whether or not you have capacity to learn what they’re saying)
• Finding your way there again
  
  • ”I’ll know when I see it.”

Question 82

Metamemory Influences

Answer 82

• 1. How you study (strategies), how often, how long
• 2. What you expect of yourself (ex: you know how well you’ll perform if you study one hour vs. 4 hours)
• 3. What kind of strategies you use to remember (what do you do to try and trigger your memory during test?)
     
     4. How long you give yourself to remember (when do you give up?)

Question 83

Two Ways of Monitoring Metamemory

Answer 83

• Judgements of Learning

- Feeling of Knowing

Question 84

Judgements of Learning

Answer 84

• Related to metamemory
• JOL

-Predicting how well you’ve learned something; what’s the chance you’re going to remember it later?

• Ex:
  
  • Given word pair
  • Immediate: decide right away if they’ll remember it
  • Delayed: decide 5 minutes later if they’ll remember it; this is a better way of predicting

Question 85

Feeling of Knowing

Answer 85

• Related to metamemory
• Predicting the likelihood of recognizing something that you can’t recall
• Similar to tip-of-the-tongue, but not as extreme
• Feeling that you know it, but you can’t recall it
• Ex:
  
  • What is the capital of California?
    
    • ”Answer”
    • ”I don’t know”
    • If don’t know, how likely do you think you’d recognize it if you saw it (like on multiple choice)

Question 86

What is the central executive?

Answer 86

Part of WM; attentional working memory

Question 87

What is the articulatory suppression effect?

Answer 87

Getting list of things to remember, and while trying to encode, you have to say a word out loud – meant to suppress articulatory loop; STM task

Question 88

When are high and low-spans most likely to differ?

Answer 88

Differ depending on difficulty and amount of attention needed; when things get challenging/have to concentrate more

Question 89

When do high spans mind-wander more than low spans? When do low spans mind wander more?

Answer 89

By making task harder, that’s when they start to differ

Question 90

When do high-spans outperform low-spans in the Stroop task?

Answer 90

When things get challenging/have to concentrate more

Question 91

What does stereotype threat do to working memory?

Answer 91

Increases anxiety and reduced working memory

Question 92

What kind of memory supports your ability to tie your shoes?

Answer 92

Non-declarative

Question 93

What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?

Answer 93

• Episodic: event

- Semantic: general knowledge and facts

Question 94

What is the effect of massed practice vs. distributed practice?

Answer 94

Distributed produces better learning in long-run

Question 95

What is the generation effect?

Answer 95

Enactment or producing material yourself

Question 96

What are some differences between Clive Wearing and HM?

Answer 96

Who is the more typical example of a case of anterograde amnesia?
H.M. was more typical because he had damage restricted to hippocampus

Question 97

What is implicit memory?

Answer 97

• Unconscious expression of memory; unconscious influence on behavior from previous event
• Ex: see picture of plane, say “plane”, shown 5 minutes later, you’ll say it faster because already exposed (primed) to it

Question 98

What is the structure of semantic memory? (Or, how is organized?)
-Activation (a) takes effort to encode and retrieve information (b) takes time to spread through the network (c) can spread in any direction (d) is only relevant to certain tasks.

Answer 98

-(b) takes time to spread through the network

Question 99

Name a task used to test the model of semantic memory.

Answer 99

-Semantic priming

Question 100

What’s one benefit and one cost of schemas?

Answer 100

• Framework, or chunking, of knowledge about something

- Ex: What is in a kitchen

Question 101

What is source memory (or source attributions)?

Answer 101

-Where the memory came from

Question 102

When does semantic memory contribute to what’s supposed to be just an episodic memory decision?

Answer 102

-When resources are low

Question 103

Cognition starts declining during what age range?

Answer 103

-22

Question 104

What is DRM (Deese, Roediger, McDermott) effect?

Answer 104

• When you have a critical lure

- Ex: of giving list of words related to “foot”

Question 105

False memories can be implanted in about __% of the sample in the average experiment.

Answer 105

-25%

Question 106

What is the misinformation effect?

Answer 106

-When you have an experience, and someone suggests that after that experience, you get the false memory of what they suggested

Question 107

What kind of encoding are you engaging in typically (outside of class): incidental or intentional?

Answer 107

Incidental (encoding info but not trying to memorize it)