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Bio 121 > Test 2 ACTUALLY > Flashcards

Test 2 ACTUALLY Flashcards

1
Q

Magnification

A

Ration of an objects to its actual size

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2
Q

Resolution

A

Measure of an images clarity

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3
Q

Contrast

A

How different one structure looks from another in terms of brightness

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4
Q

Light microscope

A

Uses light from illumination. Was first invented in 1590

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5
Q

Electron microscope

A

Uses an electron beam for illumination

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6
Q

Transmission electron miscrscopy (TEM)

A

Beam of electrons transmitted through thin slide of the sample

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7
Q

scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

A

An electrons transmitted through thin slide of the sample

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8
Q

Cell fractionation

A

The breaking up of cell vía centrifugación,in order to allow scientist to better study sub cellular structures

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9
Q

Plasma (cell) membrane

A

Barrier surrounding each cell

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10
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Gel-filled region including everything inside the plasma membrane

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11
Q

Chromosomes

A

Tightly bound bundle of DNA, containing genes

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12
Q

Ribosomes

A

Non-organelles involved in protein synthesis

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13
Q

Nucleotide

A

Region where genetic material is likely to be found

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14
Q

Domain Bacteria

A

Abundant in everyday temperature environments

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15
Q

Domain Archea

A

Less common, found in extreme environmental conditions

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16
Q

Cell wall

A

Protective structure found outside the cell membrane in most prokaryotes and some protists, as well as in fungi and in plants. It helps to maintain the shape of cells and prevents excessive amounts of water from getting into the cell. It’s made of cellulose and is held together with pectin polysaccharides

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17
Q

Organelle

A

Membrane-bound compartment with its own unique structure and function within a cell

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18
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

Double membrane enclosing the nucleus

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19
Q

Nuclear pores

A

Providing passage ways for diffusion of small molecules

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20
Q

Nucleolus

A

Area is die the nucleus where the ribosomes are made. This region will be bigger in cells with active gene transcription

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21
Q

Endomembrane system

A

Network of varied membranes including nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and vesicles

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22
Q

Vesicles

A

Membrane enclosed sacs

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23
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

studded with bound ribosomes and continuous with nuclear envelope and involved with protein synthesis and sorting but also capable of making phospholipids

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24
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

lack ribosomes and involved with the detoxification of drugs and poisons, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium ion balance maintenance, and synthesis and modification of lipids

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25
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Large network of membranes that form flattened, fluid-filled tubules or compartments used isn’t he manufacture of new molecules

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26
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Center of cell product processing, sorting, and shipping. Cells are sent to the golgi through the ER and the cis side takes in the materials. Inside the cisternae the cell products and sent through the the trans side

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27
Q

Lysosomes

A

Organelles that contain acid hydrolase that performs hydrolysis and creates a space where cells can digest macromolecules safely

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28
Q

Phagocytosis

A

A type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances of smaller organisms are take up by the cell

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29
Q

Pinocytosis

A

A type of endocytosis in which a cell ingests extra cellular fluid and it’s dios solved solutes

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30
Q

Auotphagy

A

Lysosomes use their hydrolysis enzymes to recycle the cells own organic material

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31
Q

Food vacuoles

A

Formed by phagocytosis of materials in a cell environment, found in protist and human white blood cells and will eventually fused with lysosomes

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32
Q

Contractile vacuoles

A

Are found in freshwater protists and are used from expelling excess water

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33
Q

Large central vacuoles

A

Are found in plant cells for storage and cell support. Makes up most of the plant cell

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34
Q

Mitochondria

A

The primary role is to make ATP via cellular respiration but also involved in the synthesis, modification, and break down of several types of cellular molecules

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35
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Perform photosynthesis by capturing light energy and using it synthesize organic materials such as glucose

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36
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Organelles that generate and degrade hydrogen peroxide as part of detoxification reactions

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37
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of Three different types of protein fibers found throughout the cytoplasm. the three main types of fibers are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments

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38
Q

Microtubules

A

The largest fibers. long hollow cyndrical structures with dynamic instability. Involved in mitosis and meiosis. Cilia and flagella are both part of microtubules

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39
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Mid-sized fibers. Rope like and religo ley stable. They reinforce cell shape and fix organelles to a specific location

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40
Q

Microfilaments

A

The smallest fiber. Long and thin fibers that have a dynamic cell stability( cell support and attachment) These are also referred to as actin filaments

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41
Q

Cilia

A

Often shorter than flagella and tend to cover all parts of sum part of the cell

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42
Q

Flagella

A

Usually longer cilia and are typically present in singles or pairs

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43
Q

What is similar between both cilia and flagella

A

They both have the same internal structure

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44
Q

Motor proteins

A

Category of cellular proteins that use ATP as a source of energy to promote movement. They have a head, hinge, and tail that they use to walk across the cell

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45
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

Cell wall channels that link the cytosol of neighboring plant cells, allowing material to pass between cells. this is only in plant cells

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46
Q

Tight junctions

A

Make a tissue watertight by providing connecting between close neighboring cells

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47
Q

Desmosomes

A

Keeps one cell attached to the other like buttons. They are not water tight and there are gaps in between like buttons

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48
Q

Which type of microscope gives scientists the highest level of magnification and resolution

A

SEM microscope

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49
Q

What is the difference between transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy

A

The scanning electron microscopy is the bets microscope because it is able to excite the the electrons to make a 3D image of the thing being looked at. The electron microscope cannot make a 3D image

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50
Q

During the process of cell fractionation, which “size class” of sub cellular structures will form pellets first

A

Larger sub cellular

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51
Q

Similarities and differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

A

Prokaryotic cells are very primitive and do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles while prokaryotic cells have organelles that float around in the cytoplasm

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52
Q

Main features of a Prokaryotic cell

A

No nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, small than Eukaryotic cells, has tail

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53
Q

How does the presence of organelles in. Ell sof eukaryotes always many of them to afford to be multicellular

A

More efficient use of time, energy, and cell materials due to division of labor

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54
Q

How does the presence of a plasma membrane ensure the maintenance of homeostasis on a cell

A

It decides what can come in and out of the cell at any time

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55
Q

What do the nuclear pores do

A

Allow materials such as mRNA and ribosomes to easily move from the nucleus into the endomembrane system

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56
Q

Where are ribosomes made

A

The nucleolus

57
Q

How are vesicles used in the endomembrane system

A

They are used to package cell for intracellular transport or extra cellular export

58
Q

What are the structural differences between the rough and smooth ER

A

The rough ER contains ribosomes as is involved in protein synthesis. The smooth ER does not contain ribosomes and involves the detoxification of drugs

59
Q

What do lysosomes contain that help them break down a wide variety of substances

A

Acid hydrolase that performs hydrolysis

60
Q

why are mitochondria and chloroplasts referred to as semi autonomous organelles

A

Because they are almost a small nucleus are thought to evolved from one cell eating another

61
Q

What toxic by product do the demolition reactions occurring in a Peroxisomes create, and how does a Peroxisomes deal with this by product

A

The reactions create hydrogen peroxide, which is broken down by the Peroxisomes into water and oxygen gas thought the use of catalase

62
Q

Be able to differentiate between descriptions cilia and flagella

A

Flagella is bigger than cilia and are only present by itself for with one other while cilia is smaller and mostly on larger groups

63
Q

what are the three wats ATPcreate move to within a cell

A

By “walking” along a cytoskeleton fiber, by remaining stationary while cytoskeleton fiber is “pulled/fed along” beneath it, and by causing a cytoskeleton fiber to bend/flex

64
Q

What are the three figures a plant cell has that an animal cell doesn’t

A

Large central vacuole, cell wall, chloroplasts

65
Q

How are animal cells held in place

A

By ECM primarily composed by collagen fibers

66
Q

Phospholipid bilayer

A

The composition of the plasma membrane studded with proteins

67
Q

Amphipathic

A

Having both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic region

68
Q

Selectively permeability

A

Some substances travel across it much more easily than others

69
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

Aggregate mosaic of lipid, protein, carbohydrate molecules resembling a fluid because the lipids and protein can move relative to each other with in the membrane

70
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

non covalently bound to regions of integral proteins that project from the membrane, or bound to the polar head of phospholipids

71
Q

Integral protein

A

Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer

72
Q

Glycolipid

A

Crabohydrate bound to a lipid

73
Q

Glycoprotein

A

Carbohydrate bound to a protein, more common

74
Q

Diffusion

A

The spontaneous tendency of any substance to spread out evenly across all available space

75
Q

Concentration gradient

A

Difference in concentration

76
Q

Passive transport

A

Does not require energy input and involves diffusion of a solute to achieve equal distribution on either side of the membrane barrier

77
Q

Passive transport

A

Does not require energy input and involves diffusion of a solute to achieve equal distribution on either side of the membrane barrier

78
Q

Passive diffusion

A

Does not require energy input and involves diffusion of a solute to achieve equal distribution on either side of the membrane bilayer

79
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Diffusion of a solute through a membrane with the aid of a transport protein

80
Q

Active transport

A

Requires an energy input and involves moving a solute moving “up its concentration gradient”

81
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water across a selectively mergeable membrane

82
Q

Hypertonic

A

Region with higher concentration of solute

83
Q

Hypotonic

A

Region with lower concentration of solute

84
Q

Turgor pressure

A

Water pressure present inside a plant cell that pushed the plasma membrane against that cell wall

85
Q

Channel proteins

A

Form open passageways to allow the diffusion of ions or molecules across the membrane

86
Q

Ion channels

A

Allow passage across membrane for ions, often gated

87
Q

Aquaporins

A

Channels for water

88
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Perform a conformational change to transport solute

89
Q

homeostasis

A

living cells maintain a relatively constant internal environment different from their external environment

90
Q

primary active transport

A

uses ATP as the energy source (as an ATP-driven pump) to transport solute

91
Q

secondary active transport:

A

uses a pre existing concentration gradient to drive transport of solute

92
Q

sodium-potassium pump:

A

actively transport Na+ and K+ against their gradients by using the energy from ATP hydrolysis (breakdown)

93
Q

uniporter

A

single molecule or ion is moved

94
Q

cotransporter (symporter

A

two or more ions or molecules are transported in the same direction

95
Q

antiporter

A

two or more ions or molecules are transported in opposite directions

96
Q

exocytosis

A

cell products are packaged into vesicles for export and excreted/released into the extracellular environment

97
Q

phagocytosis

A

“cellular eating” of whole pieces of debris or arts of other cells

98
Q

pinocytosis

A

“cellular drinking” of fluid

99
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis:

A

involves the entry of large particles that require recognition by a cell membrane receptor

100
Q

signal transduction pathway:

A

process by which a chemical signal on a cells surface is converted into a specific cellular response

101
Q

reception stage:

A

occurs when a signal molecule binds to a cellular protein

102
Q

transduction stage

A

after binding with a signal molecule, a change occurs in the receptor protein that triggers a signal transduction pathway within a cell

103
Q

response stage:

A

the transducer signal triggers specific cellular activities

104
Q

paracrine signaling:

A

involves local chemical signals secreted by one cell and received by neighboring cels

105
Q

synaptic signaling:

A

involves local chemical signals produces by one nerve cell and received by another nerve cell

106
Q

hormones

A

involves long-distance chemical signal produced but the endocrine system

107
Q

G protein-coupled receptors:

A

G protein-coupled receptors:

108
Q

phosphorylation/dephosphorylation:

A

the transfer/removal of phosphate groups from ATP to proteins

109
Q

protein kinases

A

enzymes that add phosphate groups from proteins

110
Q

protein phosphatases:

A

enzymes that remove phosphate groups to proteins

111
Q

wha is the major component of any biological membrane

A

phospholipid

112
Q

which part of a phospholipid faces outward towards the watery environment

A

head

113
Q

what produces energy for flippase to move lipids from one side of a membrane bilayer to the other

A

ATP

114
Q

Will a membrane be more fluid if the fatty acid tails of its lipids are longer or shorter? Will a membrane be more fluid if single bonds or multiple bonds are present in the fatty acid tails of its lipids?

A

The shorter the fatty acid the more fluid it will be because the fatty acids will interact with each other less. The more the tails, the harder it is as well to interact, which makes the bilayer more fluid

115
Q

What does cholesterol do for a cell

A

insulate a cell from extreme temps

116
Q

how do the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of proteins determine how they can interact with cell membranes

A

The peripheral proteins bound to the polar header of the phospholipids while the integral proteins penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer

117
Q

How is the movement of some membrane proteins restricted?

A

Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity

118
Q

When looking at a TEM image of a cell membrane cross-section, why do the hydrophobic centers of lipid bilayers look “empty,” while their hydrophilic “edges” appear dark?

A

The dye binds tightly with the polar heads but doesn’t effect the tails at all

119
Q

Where are the lipids needed for cell membranes synthesized in a cell?

A

(smooth ER)

120
Q

Where are the proteins needed for cell membranes synthesized?

A

(rough ER)

121
Q

What properties make it more likely that a molecule will move easily across a membrane? What properties make it less likely to be able to move across?

A

Small, uncharges, or inside some sort of vesicle make it easies for molecules

122
Q

Why do the processes of diffusion and osmosis occur?

A

Remember that the Second Law of Thermodynamics dictates that all substances tend to spread out evenly in a given environment because the universe tends toward entropy/chaos.

123
Q

Why are plant cells not able to lyse? What does turgor pressure provide for a plant?

A

Turgor pressure is pressure that is always against a plant cell wall that keeps it from lysing (exploding)

124
Q

Why do ions and water molecules require a protein channel to move across a membrane?

A

Ions are charged, which makes it harder for them to cross the membrane

125
Q

What makes carrier proteins different from channel proteins?

A

Carriers are shape specific to let specific molecules across the membrane. Channels are just holes in the membrane that allow for things to pass through

126
Q

Why is it important to control movement of molecules across a membrane?

A

Homeostasis cannot be kept if there are too little or too much of certain things

127
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary active transport?

A

Uses ATP to transport solute. Uses concentration gradient to transport solute

128
Q

How does the sodium-potassium pump provide a good example of a primary transport antiporter?

A

It is an ATP-driven pump moving 2 substances in opposite directions.

129
Q

Why is it also an electrogenic pump?

A

(It is moving positively charged ions in unequal numbers to opposite sides of a cell membrane.)

130
Q

When very large molecules/particles/droplets are moved across a membrane via exocytosis or endocytosis, what “encapsulates” the material being moved?

A

Vesicles

131
Q

Understand that the sequence of the three stages of a signal transduction pathway would be:

A

Reception stage where a ligand binds to a cellular protein, then transduction that occurs after the ligand has bonded that triggers a transduction pathway within a cell, lastly the response stage when the signal triggers specific cellular activities

132
Q

Which of the types of signaling that we discussed (direct cell contact, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, or hormone signaling) is the only one that would work across long distances in a multicellular organism?

A

Hormones

133
Q

Be able to recognize written descriptions of examples of cell membrane receptors (i.e. G protein-coupled receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, or ligand-gated ion channels embedded in outer cell membranes that are binding incoming chemical signals) vs. intracellular receptors (steroid or thyroid hormones that diffuse through cell membrane and then bind to receptors in the cytosol or nucleus).

A

The G- protein is like an on off switch for signaling molecules. When its bound to GDP its inactive and when its bound to GTP its active. The tyrosesn kinase receptor transfers phosphate groups from ATP to multiple tyrosine amine acids in order to allow their binding with more than one relay protein. Ligand gated ions is an ion channel guarded by ligands. Steroid and thyroid hormone signaling is hydrophobic chemical signals that pass through the cell membrane before being bound by cytosol to nucleus receptors

134
Q

Why is the use of signal transduction pathways so beneficial to cells?

A

It produces an amplification of any incoming signals, and also allows cells to have a large degree of specificity and control over how they respond to a chemical signal.

135
Q

What do glycolipids and glycoproteins do for the cell

A

often help receive signals or serve as markers on the surface of cells to provide a recognition flag for other cells to see

136
Q

Land and cell membrane binding is…

A

ALWAYS SHAPE SPECIFIC

137
Q

what is a common way to activate/deactivate relay proteins that are involved in a signal transduction pathway

A

phosphorylation/dephosphorylation

138
Q

different type of cells receiving identical incoming cells are likely to…

A

have completely different responses due to variation that exists in their individual signal transduction pathways

139
Q

Homeostasis

A

Living cells maintain a relatively constant internal environment different from their external environment

Bio 121 (4 decks)

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