Test 2 Flashcards
Negative Impacts on the Environment
- 1970s loss of flora and fauna, pollution, loss of natural landscape
- resource use base loss
Resource use based impacts
most affected are common pool resources, overuse, threats to biodiversity, construction, draining of wetlands, deforestation, loss of beach or reefs
Human Behaviour Impacts on the Environment
- Disruption of feeding and breeding patterns
- Displacement of highly sensitive species
- Invasion of highly tolerant species
- Destruction of resource to profit from tourists
- Indiscriminate killing of wildlife to entertain the guests
- Littering
Pollution
air, water, light, noise, aesthetic
- covers a range of scales from local to global
- GHG emissions
- water pollution
- waste disposal
- noise pollution
coastal development
- removal of coastal trees and mangrove swamps.
- drainage of wetlands
- aquaculture
construction of hotels
- increased sedimentation
- sewage
- mining of coral
- loss of local food supply
mountain development
- sensitive to change with short growing season, thin soil, and low nutrients
- regeneration is difficult
- recreation activities: lift installation, snow making
- increased infrastructure
- superstructure development
Resource Use
-airports: development of land for this rather than agriculture, infrastructure, conflicts over water
Displacement of locals
often excluded from the areas that they previously used
- beaches
- Masai removal from Masai Mara
Human behaviour
- tourisms success is viewing of wildlife – this desire to be close to wildlife can have a number of deleterious effects
- disruption of behaviour
- polar bears displaying “vigilant” behaviour
- littering (animals can eat this and die)
IUCN Category: Scientific reserve/strict nature reserve
The main purpose of this type of designation is maintain and protect the existing ecological balance of the area for scientific study and for environmental protection
IUCN Category: National Park
To protect outstanding natural and scenic areas for educational scientific and recreational use. Generally they tend to cover large expanses of land, and are not materially altered by human activity, and extractive industries are not permitted inside their boundaries
IUCN Category: Natural Monuments/Natural Landmarks
The aim of this designation is the protection and preservation of nationally significant natural features as defined by their special interest or unique features
IUCN Category: Managed nature reserve/wildlife sanctuary
Human manipulation, for example the culling of certain species or control of certain processes, can be involved in these areas to ensure the protection of nationally significant species and the physical features of the landscape
IUCN Category: Protected Landscapes
Emphasis is placed on the maintenance of nationally significant landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of humans and nature. Emphasis is also placed on the enjoyment of the area through recreation and tourism, as long as this does not detract from the normal lifestyle and economic activity of the area
IUCN Category: Resource Reserve
The aim of this designation is to protect or sustain resources of an area for present and future use by prohibiting activities that threaten them
Naturally biotic are/anthropological reserve
To permit the way of life for societies that are living in harmony with the environment to continue, uninterrupted by modern technology and human activity
Multiple use management area/managed resource
An area to be used for the sustained production of a mix of water, timber, wildlife, pasture and outdoor recreation. The conservation of nature is oriented to the support of economic activities, although specific zones can also be designated within these areas to meet specific objectives
Developing Countries Parks and Protected Areas
- rationale for developing is often the conservation of wildlife supported by revenues from tourism
- focal point for most international tourism
World Heritage Site
which recognizes sites of outstanding global natural and cultural significance
- majority are cultural
- promotes a site to be visited by tourists
- difficult to balance economic opportunity and conservation
Threats to World Heritage Sites
- overtourism
- armed conflict
- natural disasters
- pollution
- poaching
World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Program
WHS has launched the World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Program:
- building capacity
- training locals in tourism activities
- help promote local products
- raise public awareness and build conservation outreach campaigns
- use $ from tourism in conservation and protection costs
- share expertise and lessons learned with other protected sites
- increase understanding to protect WHS
Zoning
land management strategy that seeks to protect the most vulnerable landscapes while allowing for more intensive uses of more resilient or less “valued” landscapes
-some parks are older and ability to alter some zones is difficult
Zone 1 Special Preservation
areas that contain strictly protected rare or endangered species (features) and where access is strictly controlled
Zone 2 Wilderness
represents 60-90% of most parks and the primary aim is resource preservation. Use is dispersed with limited facilities
Zone 3 Natural Environment
Act as a buffer zone between zones 2 and 4 and access is primarily non-motorized
Zone 4 Recreation
Overnight facilities (campgrounds) and recreation complexes (ski areas) are located in this zone
Zone 5 Park Services
Highly modified area providing many services to park visitors but represents less than 1% of the total park area
Benefits of Zoning
-defining the types of tourism that are suitable for different zones
Carrying capacity
WTO defines it as…
“fundamental to environmental protection and sustainable development. It refers to the maximum use of any site without causing negative effects on the resources, reducing visitor satisfaction, or exerting adverse impacts on the society, economy and culture of the area.”
Social carrying capacity
includes impacts of tourist on other tourists and the local community (culture)
- impact of people on other people
- can cause goal interference
- deeply rooted in differing values
- often measured as “crowding”
Environmental carrying capacity
A measure of the limits of human use of the landscape before impacts occur
- does the impact change the character of the ecosystem
- if so, is this change acceptable
Habituation
waning of a response to a stimulus
Food conditioning
when wildlife starts to associate people with food
Design Carrying Capacity
- Specifies the level of use in and for facilities such as roads, parking lots, campgrounds, visitor centres etc.
- can include boardwalks and other infrastructure
- will have a safety margin built in
Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)
- developed to complement the ROS with a particular focus on the wilderness area designation
- is intended to be participatory and involve key stakeholders
- success or failure of the plan is largely dependent upon the follow through with data collection and monitoring
ROS
prescriptive planning tool intended to identify area uses (like ZONES) and the degree of management, activities and facilities in each zone
LAC seeks to operationalize Carrying Capacity by:
- Identifying area concerns and issues
- Defining and describing management objectives
- Implement and monitor
Major issues with Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)
- Lack of monitoring and followup
- Reduction of data collection
- Use in non-wilderness areas
- Degree of prescription vs stakeholder involvement
- Invasion and displacement
TOMM Model – Tourism Optimization Management Model
is an adaptation of the LAC specifically directed towards tourism destinations as such it is not directed towards “wilderness”
- It is a community based sustainable tourism management model responsible for monitoring the long-term health of the tourism industry at a specific location
- It relies on a management response system which alerts stakeholders to issues which require additional monitoring
TOMM
Where LAC provides a framework for identifying what could be done to address issues, TOMM identifies what should be done, by whom and where…in this way it is much more inclusive of stakeholders as they have active responsibilities beyond identifying issues
Code of Conduct
Attempts to guide the behavior of organizations and individuals – voluntary codes of conduct to mitigate the negative impacts of tourism and improve environmental compliance have been developed by government, the private sector and NGOs
range of instruments can be used to increase tourism sustainability?
- regulations are and will remain essential
- economic instruments are increasingly used by governments;
- voluntary proactive approaches are seen as the best way of ensuring long term commitments to sustainability
Principles of codes tend to focus around:
- Sustainable use of nature
- Reduction of environmental impacts
- Reducing waste and over consumption
- Sensitivity for wildlife and local culture
- Adopting internal environmental management strategies and environmental auditing
- Support local economy by using local suppliers
- Pursuing responsible marketing
Criticisms of codes of conduct
- Monitoring and evaluation of codes
- The conflict between codes as a form of marketing and codes as a genuine attempt to improve practice
- Regulation or voluntary self regulation of the industry
- Variability between different codes and the need for coordination
Role of government is critical in formulating environmental policy for tourism
Legislation for support and creation of parks and protected areas, EIA, taxation and earmarked funding
Range of land use planning techniques can be used for tourism
Zoning, ROS, LAC, TOMM, VAMP, etc
Over 150 years since the first National Parks were established, over popularity is threatening them
This is especially important for early parks where marked improvement in access and infrastructure create large crowds in areas not properly planned for in the first place
World Heritage Sites
Similar to NPs WHS can and do create pressures on sites and uncontrolled development is seen as a threat to WHS
Codes of conduct can and have been developed by a variety of stakeholders in tourism
- For private sector they are interpreted as a form of self- regulation
- However, the codes lack monitoring and the evaluation of their utility is limited
- Can be nothing more than green washing
Consumption
- exchange of goods and services
- extends beyond the attaining products to meet basic needs – to signifying lifestyle and status
- it normally involves monetary exchange reflecting personal choices and values
- high levels of consumption are also often credited as being key causes of environmental problems
Habitus
refers to the inclination of individuals and social classes to adopt objects and practices that differentiate them from others in society
Urban Living
- seen as an over stimulus and complex
- One way to manage over-stimulation of the urban environment is to reconnect to nature and the links between tourism and urbanization are well developed
Modes of Interacting with Nature: Environment as setting
- Nature is given value in possessing characteristics to be able to pursue specific activities
- ie)sunbathing on a beach to more active physical pursuits like downhill skiing, white water rafting, scuba-diving
- In these examples the pursuit of satisfying the need for relaxing or excitement takes precedence over environmental appreciation
Modes of Interacting with Nature: Environment as social system
-Environment is seen primarily as a place to interact with friends and family
Modes of Interacting with Nature: Environment as emotional territory
- Strong emotional feelings associated with or invoked by the natural environment
- Surroundings are an integral part of the tourist experience – capable of producing deep emotions
Modes of Interacting with Nature: Environment as self
- Merging of nature with self. Environment ceases to be detachable from the person or external to them
- Any damage to environment is seen as damage to self
Tourism Marketing
A key influence in how nature is used for different types of tourism and the impacts of tourism
ex) if ecosystems or wildlife are promoted as a backdrop to high times and parties the the possibility that negative interactions between tourism and nature may be heightened
Level of Interest: Loungers
-low level of interest beyond pleasant surroundings, akin to mass tourism market
– environment does not have to be specialized or unique so destinations can be interchangeable
– the 3 S’s
– even a high degree of human-induced change would not be a deterrent
Level of Interest: Users
-interested in the environment having specific characteristics required for the type of holiday they plan – these are therefore more specialized and limited in number
– scuba diving, downhill skiing, shared characteristics- reef, mountains with adequate snow, some human intrusion permissible and necessary
Level of Interest: Eco Aware
– increasing interest in environment for its own sake
– emphasis is on learning about the species and ecosystems being visited
– Ecotourism holidays emphasize this type of holiday
– emphasis on wildlife viewing
Level of Interest: Specialist Ecotourist
- very small niche market with a high level of commitment to the environment
- conservation holiday, scientific research, paying to volunteer on a conservation or scientific project
Why are people reluctant to stop travel?
- It has become embedded in the culture (should) -
- It has been enshrined ad human “right” by the UN
- It represents a reward for having worked hard the rest of the year understood as a sign of economic progress
Tourism and Ethics Summary
- Recreational tourism can be seen as a form of consumption reliant on experiences of the natural environment – how we do this reflects values and attitudes
- Concern has grown in recent decades over the impact of human activities on the environment has resulted in the emergence of discourse of our ethical responsibilities
- While ethical consumption have become significant consumer niches, the influence of ethical consumerism is more uncertain
Sustainable Tourism
- The roots of sustainable tourism lies in the concept of sustainable development
- “Meeting the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs”
Flexibility (sustainability)
due to the flexibility of the concept can be seen as “boon or bane”
World Conservation Strategy meeting in Bali 1980
- Concept emergence in an attempt to “reconcile conflicting value positions with regard to the environment”
- Report was based on the concerns of negative effect of high economic growth on nature
- Unique “quantitative jump” in industrial production
“Great Acceleration”
– lead to increased living standards and life expectancy for many
– as a result of the unsustainable use of natural resources and loss of natural capital
UNCED – “Earth Summit” Rio de Janeiro 1992
- Agenda 21 – developed an action plan based on the three dimensions of economic growth, equitable human development and environmental protection
- Envisaged a “bottom up approach” to development as opposed to “top down”
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that included
- Eradication of extreme poverty
- Combating HIV/Aids
- Empowering women
- Ensuring environmental sustainability
- Tourism gained currency as a means to achieve a number of these goals and is explicitly mentioned
5 P’s of Sustainability
-People
-Plant
-Prosperity
-Peace
-Partnership
The development reflects a growing recognition of the interrelationship between the economy and the natural environment
Technocentrism
belief that technical and management solutions can be found
Ecocentrism
-closely allied with the Romantics
– lack of faith in modern technology and bureaucratic elites being able to create balance
– advocate for alternative technologies
Sustainable Tourism: Knowledge Based Platform
that both small-scale and large scale tourism development can be sustainable under appropriate conditions, it follows then that sustainable tourism can be engaged in environments ranging from wilderness to intensely developed urban cores (accommodates both weak and strong sustainability
Weak Sustainability strategies
on one side of the spectrum apply to extensively modified environments like urban centres where the absence of undisturbed natural habitat makes the protection of the latter irrelevant – so high density tourism activities are not necessarily associated with environmental strategy
- Large resort hotels and theme parks are modes of tourism that could be appropriate in weak sustainable tourism strategies (“development” component)
Strong sustainability strategies
- more relevant in relatively undisturbed natural or cultural settings where even a small increase in tourism activity could trigger unacceptable environmental or sociocultural costs
- precautionary principle (no action should be taken if its consequences are not known) is an underlying tenet
- In some cases no tourism is a viable option
Status quo or enhancement of tourism
i. e. sustainability suggests the maintenance of existing conditions – though few would seriously argue this outside of a situation where the status quo represented relatively unaltered landscapes (national park, cultural landscape, etc)
- In the case of a blighted landscape then enhancement sustainable tourism approach is warranted – visitor limits etc
Complexity of tourist systems
- preference for holistic approaches to sustainable tourism are major premises of the knowledge based platform – but greatly increases the complexity of planning and management of tourist destinations
- Related to this are fuzzy boundaries, indirect and induced effects on other systems, impacts of external systems on tourism, and unpredictable relationships between cause and effect
Fuzzy boundaries
the absence of clear boundaries around tourism systems adds complexity to sustainability initiatives
ie) The actual portion of tourists in any individual operation will vary from nearly all tourists to largely local – and vary further seasonally
Indirect and induced impacts of tourism – adds further complexity
- The multiplier effect results in indirect effects through ongoing expenditure of direct revenues of tourism within the destination – purchase local food/farmer purchases fertilizer
- As a result of these indirect and induced impacts the global tourism economy is approximately 3 times larger than the global tourism industry
Influence of external systems
rarely talked about in the tourism literature is the pervasive effect of external sectors and systems on tourism
- Encroachment of forest clearing on eco-lodges in Peru
- Continued blasting of coral reef to capture fish in Indonesia
- Multiple cases of terrorist activity
Unpredictable cause and effect relationships
- it is difficult to anticipate the time and location of all significant consequences associated with an action such as opening a rainforest tour operation or a new hotel.
- Spatial and temporal discontinuities between cause and effect further complicate the implementation of sustainable tourism strategies
Thresholds
when a critical level is reached, long periods of apparently no cause and effect can suddenly give way (cascading effect)
ex) blue-green algae blooms
Holistic Sustainability
- “holistic” sustainability approach that includes indirect, macro, inter-sectoral and pan-realm assumptions about the scope of engagement in sustainable tourism
- holistic approach goes beyond these to consider indirect and induced effects insofar as they can be identified
Confined Sustainability
confined approach considers only direct impacts or those that emerge directly from the actual tourism sector
Micro and macro spatial scale
- The macro approach accommodated both indirect and induced impacts and extends the spatial and temporal scale beyond the immediate activity or destination
- In it’s extreme form the macro approach considers the long term global impacts of an activity
Inter-sectoral foci
expanded focus beyond tourism to include interrelationships with relevant external sectors
Intra-sectoral foci
restricts the focus to tourism alone
Minimalist Sustainable Tourism
- environmental, sociocultural, or economic impacts
- site specific or local focus
- short-term effects of actions
- tourism sector only
- direct impacts only
- intergenerational equity
- status quo sustainability
Comprehensive Sustainable Tourism
- environmental, sociocultural, or economic impacts
- regional or global focus
- long-term effects of actions
- tourism in the context of other sectors
- direct, indirect and induced impacts
- intergenerational and intragenerational equity
- enhancement sustainability
Financial Sustainability
- Both ideal types assume that the business or destination must maintain its financial sustainability
- Most discussions of sustainable tourism ignore or downplay the issue of financial sustainability
Nature Based tourism
ecological, wildlife based tourism, environmental, adventure tourism (soft and hard), cultural tourism
-Conservation, education, ethics, sustainability, impacts, and local benefits key recent criteria
Ceballos-Lascuran
“travel to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects (both past and present) found in these areas.
2 criteria
nature based and educational or appreciative motivations (tourist centered)
3rd criterion
environmental and socio-cultural sustainability
Ecotourism is about the natural history of a region
- It is intrinsic in that it has value for its own sake
- It is a participatory, first hand sensory experience
- It is educational - both in terms of the guide and the client - focus on learning not skill development
- It has appreciative motives
- It is sustainable
Nature based attractions
- Can range from an entire ecosystem to selected components of the ecosystem
- The latter often focuses upon charismatic megafauna and more rarely on charismatic megaflora
Cultural attractions
- Minor role in elemental (confined) approach
- But central in the holistic approach due to the interaction with human populations
- This implies that ecotourism venues are not restricted to “relatively undisturbed sites”
Indigenous territories
results in a blurring of the lines between cultural and natural areas and as a result cultural areas can be seen as essential
Interaction (educational)
- Motivations of education and learning about the environment distinguish ecotourism from other nature based products
- Again education opportunities can be ranged along a continuum – from attempts at transformative experiences to simple basic messages
Environmental and sociocultural sustainability
Ecotourism is the only high profile sector that explicitly identifies environmental and sociocultural sustainability as prerequisites
Comprehensive Ideal Type
Entails a holistic approach to nature based attractions, fosters deep understanding and adheres to the traits of the comprehensive sustainable tourism ideal type
Minimalist Ideal Type
Adheres to minimalist ST ideal type – elemental approach to the product focusing on a shallow understanding
Hard path ecotourists
small groups on long specialized trips into undisturbed settings where opportunities for physically and mentally challenging experiences are available – do not rely on facilitating sectors (travel agents, tour operators)
Soft path ecotourists
associated with more conventional tourist market, engage in activities that do not challenge them mentally and physically of short duration often as a component of a multi-purpose trip
Structured ecotourists
a variant of the soft/hard dichotomy. Desire for structure (interpretation, escorts, pre-arranged travel planning) and displayed strong environmental beliefs, desire for mentally and physically challenging experience along with opportunities to socialize
Three factors contribute to the “phantom demand”
- Many actual ecotourism experiences can be purchased at relatively little cost
- Majority of soft experiences mediated through conventional tourism industry
- Consumption of specialized ecotourism products most evident among hard ecotourists
Ecolodge
most distinctive component of the industry – typically geared for the “hard ecotourist” at the luxury end of the market
-Attractive to structured ecotourists
Mediating attractions
mobile or fixed structure that facilitates interaction with another attraction and is an attraction in its own right – cable cars
Some regions ecotourism “hotspots”
- Rainforests – Amazon and Central America
- Africa – Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, South Africa, Botswana,
- Australia
- Increasingly the Arctic and Antarctic
Environmental benefits
Direct financial incentive for preservation of natural habitat
- Indirect effect as well – upstream and downstream linkages
- Critical source of funding for management
- Effects more likely with soft eco due to economies of scale
- Rehabilitation of modified spaces
- Mobilization of volunteers
- Transformative effects can extend to locals
Environmental costs
- Removal of vegetation in construction of lodges trails etc.
- Inadvertant impacts associated with wildlife viewing – zoonoses, behavioural changes
- Spread of exotics
Ecotourism Perception
- The relationship between developing countries and wildlife roaming their surrounding natural environment differs dramatically from the western (North) perceptions of the environment
- E.g. western view of wildlife consumption and conservation wilderness as a tourism commodity) often conflict with the daily livelihood
Non-consumptive Ecotourism
- wide range of potential activities many of which are not well studied in terms of potential impact (Birdwatching)
- Wildlife viewing requires high quality resources
- Viewing needs dense and diverse wildlife populations
- Overall WV contribute more given there is appropriate resource available
- Viewing results in greater attention to maintaining or enhancing natural habitat and wildlife conservation
- preferred use of land
Consumptive Ecotourism
- immediate impacts are obvious, and so often not examined further. (hunting)
- Hunting requires a larger area
- As a result it provides less return per unit of land
- It does however provide equal return per unit of capital investment
Inuit sport polar bear hunt
- Inuit communities have the right to harvest a number (determined annually) polar bears
- Aboriginals also have the right to transfer the polar bear hunting rights to others as long as an aboriginal guide accompanies the tourist hunter.
- Positive outcomes for the community include – revival of dog mushing; preservation of traditional sewing, hunting and survival skills; accommodation for subsistence and Inuit norms of sharing.
- Fear that pressure to reduce the hunt (not supported by evidence) could result in undue reduction in the value of polar bear harvest, loss of local support for conservation measures, including bear quotas.
Angling ecotourism
- Fishing is one of the most popular outdoor activities in N.A.
- Also very important to many destinations as a tourism product
- Revenues support fish and wildlife management agencies at all levels
- Catch and release program supports local conservation initiatives
Challenge of Climate Change on Tourism
- climate change is the greatest as climatic stability and predictability are essential
- Sun, sea and sand of conventional mass tourism to the biodiversity of niche ecosystems that support ecotourism most leisure tourism is dependent upon the resources of nature that are in part the result of climatic stability
Impacts of Climate Change on Tourism
- current assumptions may not hold true in the near future
ie) Belugas and polar bears showing up when they are supposed to/ temperatures of warm destinations - growing awareness that tourism contributes to climate change through GHG emissions
- expected decrease in skii season of 7-32% by 2050s/ ice fishing to decrease by 52 days
- warm weather tourism expected to increase ie) more beach time by 172 days in the 2080s
- no absolute certainty about how tourism will be affected by climate change
Predictions and Accuracy in Terms of Changes
- predictions relating to rising sea level resulting from melting ice cap and thermal expansion of water
- Small island developing states (SIDS) most at risk
- Inundation (complete submersion), increased storm surge effect, salt water intrusion, beach erosion, loss of coastal ecosystems
Impact on Destinations
- have limited opportunities to diversify their economies, ie) being highly dependent on winter sports
- Displacement to higher elevations could increase pressure on surrounding ecosystem (might be offset by ecosystem migration)
- Reduced supply with increased demand could result in dramatic price increase (return to elitist activity it once was)
- rising sea levels may continue to threaten Caribbean destinations
- Increased need for AC increase pressure on already stressed grids
Opportunity for Destinations
-The north (Europe and Canada) will become more attractive for summer vacations as weather becomes consistently warmer and drier while the Med becomes too hot and arid
Climate Change Impact on Special Activity Tourism
- impacts of temp increase and hurricane frequency increase on coral reefs
- Wildlife tourism also vulnerable as biodiversity decreases and charismatic megafauna are impacted by climatic changes
Climate Alarmism
-Repeated statements regarding the “extinction” of polar bears, the loss of the arctic, the end of the great migrations only serves to enhance peoples desires to “see it before it’s gone” , often to a market that might previously had no inclination whatsoever to visit these area
Tourism and GHG Emissions
- Over the next 25 years tourism is predicted to double
- So meeting the goal of halving CO2 emissions by 2050 is highly unlikely
- Particularly since # of tourists are increasing and there is a clear preference for increasingly remote locations (last chance effect)
- it is estimated that 60% of “low cost” air travel is induced, that is there is no specific reason for travel other than the low price
