Test 2 Flashcards
Ethos as an “artistic proof”
-Aristotle
Artful persuasion is distinguished by Aristotle from things like torture and bribery, both of which may “persuade”
Ethos as an “inartistic proof”
-Aristotle
Intellectual skill of the persuader
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
1. Competence and authoritativeness
Perceptions of intelligence, confidence, poise, knowledge, reasoning, judgement, and mental alertness. What we call “authority” is fundamentally an interpretation, a judgement we make based on our assessment of a persons ability to lead or otherwise pass judgement in some fashion.
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
2. Trustworthiness and safety
Includes such characteristics as honesty, sincerity, reliability, fairness, justness, loyalty, ethics, restraint, even- temperdness, maturity, rationality, democratic values, sensitivity, and sympathy. As Hauser writes, “these virtues should be present in the way the rhetor argues a cause. In other words, virtue is not demonstrated by arguing that we are morally upright. It is demonstrated by arguing that we are morally upright.
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
3. Element of dynamism
The persuader in this case must come across as being forceful, decisive, energetic , vigorous, active, enterprising, industrious, and creative.
Connection between ethos and “the problem of the demagogue”
Credibility should be earned, at least ideally, and some persuaders manage to avoid the arduous task of earning our respect by appealing to those apparently similar traits that evoke, psychologically, our respect and sense of unity.
“Mystery” as discussed by Kenneth Burke
“A major resource of persuasion. Endow a person, an institution a thing with the glow or resonance of the mystical, and you have set up an emotional appeal to which people simultaneously respond
How does “mystery” relate to Hierarchy
As society is structured hierarchically, as sense of cohesion will have to be fostered. We all have to think we have an equal stake in our social order. We are complacent in part because we do not know how the “other half” lives. It works both ways.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
1. Identification/ Association and Disassociation Tactics
First the persuader can engage in identification, association, and dissociation tactics. This tactic involves a dimensions of balance theory “you do not like me, but you like America, so if i can associate myself with the things that are “American” you may come to think of me as a patriot and change your appeal of me.”
8 Ways to enhance ethos
2. Arguing Against One’s Own Interest
Second, the persuader can argue against his or her own best interests. A persuader can construct a case for her or his sincerity by demonstrating that there is no conflict of interest, and that, in fact the pursuance of a policy actually has detrimental consequences for the persuader.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
3. Identifying Self or Organization Late in the Presentation
Third, if the persuader and/or her/ his organization are objects of contempt for an audience, the persuader can identify self or organization late in the presentation and thus slowly build goodwill with the audience
8 Ways to enhance ethos
4. Grounding in Logos
A fourth way that a controversial persuader can improve her or his credibility is to couch controversial claims within logic- the framework of solid content, a well reasoned argument, and a completely organized structure. The less likely that an audience will take for granted the premises of a controversial appeal, the more careful that persuader has to be in establishing clearly those premises and in defending them
8 Ways to enhance ethos
5. Endorsements
Fifth, to the extent that a persuader can find others who will endorse her or his credibility, it is beneficial to make this endorsement public, as it is a way of attracting further support. The credibility of an endorser often acts as an intermediary between the unknown or negligible credibility of a source and the general disposition of most audiences to assume, or seek, a good willed relationship with the speaker.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
6. Employ a careful introduction
Sixth the use of a careful introduction is also important in helping the persuader to negotiate difficult credibility issues. The use of a careful introduction involves reading ones audience well enough so as to negotiate skillfully the parameters o the intended discourse with them.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
7. Dress and Appearance
Seventh how one looks is an important factor in helping a person establish her or his credibility. While dress and appearance obviously should not be the most important thing to consider when analyzing a persuasive appeal, we should remember that our dress and appearance often position us in society in significant ways.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
8. Apologetic Tactics
Apologetics is the study and practice of the intellectual defense or belief system, ideology, event, policy or person. Apologetic tactics are ways that unpopular or “damaged” persuaders redeem themselves.
Apologetic Tactics
1. Denial
By denying participation in, or relationship to, that which repels the audience, the persuader attempts to encourage the audience to see her or him as he was prior to the accusation of wrongdoing.
Apologetic Tactics
2. Bolstering or Identification
Bolstering or Identification is the opposite of denial and “refers to any rhetorical strategy which reinforces the existence of a fact, sentiment, object, or relationship.
Apologetic Tactics
3. Differentiation
This tactic renames or redefines whatever repels the audience so that it is seen in a new and favorable light.
Apologetic Tactics
4. Transcendence
Transcendence is the opposite of differentiation. The goal here is to cognitively join “some fact, sentiment, object, or relationship with some larger context within which the audience does not presently view that attribute.
Apologetic Tactics
5. Counterattack
Counterattack is what persuaders sometimes do when all else fails to justify or otherwise explain away an action that people are judging as bad. The practice of counterattacking occurs when the persuader turns around the issue of hurting her or his credibility by charging or challenging the opposition to defend her or himself on an unrelated, sensational issue.
“Audience Centered”
Persuasion, to be successful, must “fit” the needs and constraints of the people that a persuader is trying to influence.
Demographic Research
Explores the characteristics of a population to identify a market appeal. Common variables in demographic research include race, age, gender, socioeconomic status, psychical ability, and geographic location.
Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric “all available means of persuasion in a given instance.”
These means exist within the context and perspective of the people receiving the communication. Persuasion, it must always be remembered is an art, and the audience establishes the parameters within which the process can be initiated and maintained.
