Test 2 Flashcards
Ethos as an “artistic proof”
-Aristotle
Artful persuasion is distinguished by Aristotle from things like torture and bribery, both of which may “persuade”
Ethos as an “inartistic proof”
-Aristotle
Intellectual skill of the persuader
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
1. Competence and authoritativeness
Perceptions of intelligence, confidence, poise, knowledge, reasoning, judgement, and mental alertness. What we call “authority” is fundamentally an interpretation, a judgement we make based on our assessment of a persons ability to lead or otherwise pass judgement in some fashion.
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
2. Trustworthiness and safety
Includes such characteristics as honesty, sincerity, reliability, fairness, justness, loyalty, ethics, restraint, even- temperdness, maturity, rationality, democratic values, sensitivity, and sympathy. As Hauser writes, “these virtues should be present in the way the rhetor argues a cause. In other words, virtue is not demonstrated by arguing that we are morally upright. It is demonstrated by arguing that we are morally upright.
Three dimensions of ethos in modern theory
3. Element of dynamism
The persuader in this case must come across as being forceful, decisive, energetic , vigorous, active, enterprising, industrious, and creative.
Connection between ethos and “the problem of the demagogue”
Credibility should be earned, at least ideally, and some persuaders manage to avoid the arduous task of earning our respect by appealing to those apparently similar traits that evoke, psychologically, our respect and sense of unity.
“Mystery” as discussed by Kenneth Burke
“A major resource of persuasion. Endow a person, an institution a thing with the glow or resonance of the mystical, and you have set up an emotional appeal to which people simultaneously respond
How does “mystery” relate to Hierarchy
As society is structured hierarchically, as sense of cohesion will have to be fostered. We all have to think we have an equal stake in our social order. We are complacent in part because we do not know how the “other half” lives. It works both ways.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
1. Identification/ Association and Disassociation Tactics
First the persuader can engage in identification, association, and dissociation tactics. This tactic involves a dimensions of balance theory “you do not like me, but you like America, so if i can associate myself with the things that are “American” you may come to think of me as a patriot and change your appeal of me.”
8 Ways to enhance ethos
2. Arguing Against One’s Own Interest
Second, the persuader can argue against his or her own best interests. A persuader can construct a case for her or his sincerity by demonstrating that there is no conflict of interest, and that, in fact the pursuance of a policy actually has detrimental consequences for the persuader.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
3. Identifying Self or Organization Late in the Presentation
Third, if the persuader and/or her/ his organization are objects of contempt for an audience, the persuader can identify self or organization late in the presentation and thus slowly build goodwill with the audience
8 Ways to enhance ethos
4. Grounding in Logos
A fourth way that a controversial persuader can improve her or his credibility is to couch controversial claims within logic- the framework of solid content, a well reasoned argument, and a completely organized structure. The less likely that an audience will take for granted the premises of a controversial appeal, the more careful that persuader has to be in establishing clearly those premises and in defending them
8 Ways to enhance ethos
5. Endorsements
Fifth, to the extent that a persuader can find others who will endorse her or his credibility, it is beneficial to make this endorsement public, as it is a way of attracting further support. The credibility of an endorser often acts as an intermediary between the unknown or negligible credibility of a source and the general disposition of most audiences to assume, or seek, a good willed relationship with the speaker.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
6. Employ a careful introduction
Sixth the use of a careful introduction is also important in helping the persuader to negotiate difficult credibility issues. The use of a careful introduction involves reading ones audience well enough so as to negotiate skillfully the parameters o the intended discourse with them.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
7. Dress and Appearance
Seventh how one looks is an important factor in helping a person establish her or his credibility. While dress and appearance obviously should not be the most important thing to consider when analyzing a persuasive appeal, we should remember that our dress and appearance often position us in society in significant ways.
8 Ways to enhance ethos
8. Apologetic Tactics
Apologetics is the study and practice of the intellectual defense or belief system, ideology, event, policy or person. Apologetic tactics are ways that unpopular or “damaged” persuaders redeem themselves.
Apologetic Tactics
1. Denial
By denying participation in, or relationship to, that which repels the audience, the persuader attempts to encourage the audience to see her or him as he was prior to the accusation of wrongdoing.
Apologetic Tactics
2. Bolstering or Identification
Bolstering or Identification is the opposite of denial and “refers to any rhetorical strategy which reinforces the existence of a fact, sentiment, object, or relationship.
Apologetic Tactics
3. Differentiation
This tactic renames or redefines whatever repels the audience so that it is seen in a new and favorable light.
Apologetic Tactics
4. Transcendence
Transcendence is the opposite of differentiation. The goal here is to cognitively join “some fact, sentiment, object, or relationship with some larger context within which the audience does not presently view that attribute.
Apologetic Tactics
5. Counterattack
Counterattack is what persuaders sometimes do when all else fails to justify or otherwise explain away an action that people are judging as bad. The practice of counterattacking occurs when the persuader turns around the issue of hurting her or his credibility by charging or challenging the opposition to defend her or himself on an unrelated, sensational issue.
“Audience Centered”
Persuasion, to be successful, must “fit” the needs and constraints of the people that a persuader is trying to influence.
Demographic Research
Explores the characteristics of a population to identify a market appeal. Common variables in demographic research include race, age, gender, socioeconomic status, psychical ability, and geographic location.
Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric “all available means of persuasion in a given instance.”
These means exist within the context and perspective of the people receiving the communication. Persuasion, it must always be remembered is an art, and the audience establishes the parameters within which the process can be initiated and maintained.
“Audience” is an abstraction
Chaim Perelman’s concept of the “universal audience.” Audiences consist of flesh and blood individuals; but even here we cannot assume that the mere existence of a group of people constitutes an organic or conscious whole.
“Audience” is an abstraction
Chaim Perelman’s concept of the “universal audience.” Audiences consist of flesh and blood individuals; but even here we cannot assume that the mere existence of a group of people constitutes an organic or conscious whole. Status as an audience is an internalized phenomenon that takes place in a persons mind.
“Fragmentation” of the audience
We should not think of an audience in binary terms: this group of people is or is not an audience. Rather people belong to different audiences at different times in different ways.
What contributes to this fragmentation
The persuader must figure out who or what group has the power to make her/his vision a reality and to identify and situate this policy within the specific needs of these people/
Behavioral Motivation
Why people act like they do.
How are emotions triggers for persuasion and for behavioral motivations?
Emotions are psychological and often psychological reactions to salient stimuli that we experience in the form of powerful feelings. They help prepare or prime us for action. Perceptions are triggered by appeals to our emotions, and our perceptions are what link together our values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Safety and Security
An ad may appeal to our desire or need for safety and security.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Youth and Vanity
Our desire to appear young and look our best.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Generosity, Considerateness, and Equality
Most of us want to feel that we are nice, considerate, and reasonable people who are sensitive to the needs of others, and we receive social capital for sharing and being concerned with those in our community.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Popularity and Belonging
The need to belong to something (the need for inclusion)
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Pride and Material Success
We want happiness, pride, prestige, material comfort, and convenience.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Love
Love appeals attempt to capitalize on what we can be the best in all of us- our desire or need to nurture and watch over those we care about deeply
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Fear, Anger, and Indignation
Metaphor for pain and punishment, they are trying to get us emotionally involved with some position which, henceforth, becomes a moral position. Take any objective condition and associate it with something to be hated and feared and it becomes a moral issue
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Guilt
Guilt does not exist in nature, rather, it is grounded in our ability to use and miss use symbol
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Logic
Logic in the sense that it has been popularly and operationally defined, involves the analytical pursuit and refinement of some knowledge that exists outside our selves.
Value/ Emotional Appeal Triggers
Procedural certainty
Logical arguments work only within the confines of the system that itself, offers. All logical systems in some sense, tautological they justify themselves to themselves; one is either part of or not a part of such a system.
Swartz says we must move beyond that conception and view the relationship between ‘logic’ and ‘emotion’ as a dialectical one. What does he mean?
Emotional commitments and and “sight” itself is highly dependent upon the individual and her/his ideological or subjective dispositions.
“Procedural Certainty”
Logical arguments work only within the confines of the system that itself, offers. All logical systems in some sense, tautological they justify themselves to themselves; one is either part of or not a part of such a system.
Emotional Extremity
The quality of language which indicates the degree to which the speakers attitudes deviates from neutrality.
“Fear Appeal’
When a persuader warns an audience of some negative result if they do not follow a particular course of action, that persuader is using a dear appeal.
Variables- Fear Appeals
First
The amount of exposure to an appeal that an audience has. The more recent the appeal for a particular audience, the more possibility there is for intense fear to be cultivated.
Variables- Fear Appeals
Second
The degree of vulnerability that an audience feels with regard to the “threat” that the persuader is trying to make the audience feel. More vulnerable, higher the emotional intensity, more vulnerable the audience already feels, the less intense the persuaders message has to be.
Variables- Fear Appeals
Third
The degree of relevance an audience might feel. If the audience sees no relevance in what the persuader is trying to highlight, more graphic and intense appeals may be necessary.
Variables- Fear Appeals
Fourth
Perceived Credibility of the persuaders. More credible persuaders can use more intense types of language. The more intense the language is, the more intense the appeal to fear becomes.
Variables- Fear Appeals
Fifth
Type of action required. To arose people emotionally without justifying the arousal does two things: first it makes the persuader look bad; second and more significantly, it may cause some people cannot handle their anxiety to transfer it to areas unintended by the persuader.
High Fear Appeals
Work best when the audience have had only limited exposure to the message.
Moderate Fear Appeals
We need to have a more realistic picture drawn out for us, one that is believable, one that cultivates a fear of a plausible outcome.
Low Fear Appeals
Low fear appeals are necessary when the audience has had a great deal of prior exposure tot he message or if the audience feels exceedingly vulnerable.
Exigence
Involves the way a persuader communicates a sense of urgency to the audience that is appropriate to the context and other constraints.
Metaphor
An implied comparison denoting one kind of object or idea in place of another to suggest a likeness between them to explain the unknown in terms of the known.
Framing
A perspective devise used to fix meanings and organize experience for the audience. Frames are conceptual boundaries that are constructed for us by a persuader and from within which we form our understandings of the world.
Terminal Ethos
The ethos of a writer/ speaker at the completion of communication, it is the product of the interaction between the initial and derived ethos
Derived Ethos
The ethos of a source during the communication
Guilt Redemption Cycle
“Those up” are guilty of not being ‘down’, those down’ are certainly guilty of not being ‘up.’ No matter where we are in the social hierarchy, there is something we could have done better, differently.
Second Persona- Ed Black
The role assumed by an audience in response to a speech or other text.
Antecedent Ethos
A speakers reputation, occupation, or situation.
