Test 2 Flashcards
NPN Transistor: Structure
Two pn junction diodes
- BE Forward Biased (Vbe > 0)
- CB Reverse Biased (Vc > Vb and Vbc < 0)
NPN Transistor: operation in active mode
Acts as a voltage controlled current source
Base region very thin
Cannot be modeled as two back-to-back diodes
Carries a large number of electrons from E, through B, to C while drawing a small current of holes through base terminal
How do electrons travel through the base?
Diffusion
NPN Transistor: Base-Emitter Junction
Electrons flow from E to B
Holes flow from B to E
More electrons than holes (E doping level greater than base, n+)
E injects a large number of electrons into the base while receiving a small number of holes
NPN Transistor: what happens to electrons as they enter the base?
Since base region is thin, most of the electrons reach the edge of the collector-base depletion region, beginning to experience the built-in electric field
Electrons are swept into collector region and absorbed by the positive battery terminal
NPN Transistor: collector-base junction
Carries a current because minority carriers are injected into its depletion region
NPN Transistor: base region
Small electric field (allows most of the field to drop across BE depletion layer)
Drift current is negligible
NPN Transistor: collector current
Does not depend on collector voltage in active mode
NPN Transistor: base current
Results from the flow of holes
As the electrons injected by E travel through B, some may “recombine” with the holes
Must supply holes for both reverse injection into E and recombination with the electrons traveling toward C
NPN Transistor: large-signal model
Diode between B and E
Voltage-controlled current source between C and E
Chain of dependencies: Vbe —> Ic —> Ib—> Ie
NPN Transistor: I/V Characteristics
Ic vs. Vbe with Vce constant
-exponential relationship (acts like a diode)
Ic vs. Vce with Vbe constant
- moves up and down with different values of Vbe
- horizontal line because Ic is constant if in active mode (Vce > Vbe)
NPN Transistor: transconductance
Tells us about the performance of the device
As Ic increases, the transistor becomes a better amplifying device by producing larger collector current excursions in response to a given signal level applied between B and E
A function of collector current (if Ic constant, gm constant)
NPN Transistor: small signal model
Make small changes in Vce or Vbe and observe the changes in Ic, Ib, and Ie
With a high collector bias current, a greater gm is obtained, but the impedance between B and E falls to lower values
VCC must be replaced with a zero voltage to signify the zero change (ground supply voltage)
Voltages with no change replaced with a ground connection
NPN Transistor: Early Effect
If Rc increases, so does the voltage gain of the circuit
Translates to nonideality in the device that can limit the gain of amplifiers
NPN Transistor: Early Effect - Increasing Vce
Widening depletion region in C and B areas
Base charge profile must fall to zero at the edge of depletion region, so the slope increases
Base width decreases, increasing collector current
NPN Transistor: Early Effect - I/V Characteristics
Ic vs. Vbe
- remains exponential
- greater slope
Ic vs. Vce
- non zero slope (Ic/Va)
- Vce «_space;Va
- this variation reveals that the transistor does not operate as an ideal current source, requiring modification
NPN Transistor: Early Effect - small signal model
Collector current does vary with Vce (ro - output resistance)
Gain is eventually limited by the transistor output resistance
NPN Transistor: Operation in Saturation Mode - Vce approaches Vbe
Vbc goes from a negative value towards zero
BC junction experiences less reverse bias
NPN Transistor: Operation in Saturation Mode - Vce = Vbe
BC junction sustains a zero voltage difference
Depletion region still absorbs most of the electrons injected by E into B
NPN Transistor: Operation in Saturation Mode - “saturation region”
Vce < Vbe; Vbc > 0; BC junction FB
Collector voltage drops, BC junction experiences greater FB, carrying a significant current
Large number of holes must be supplied to base terminal
-leads to sharp rise in base current and rapid fall in beta
NPN Transistor: Operation in Saturation Mode - soft saturation
Diode sustaining small forward bias with extremely small current but still operates in active mode (Vbc < 400mV)
NPN Transistor: Operation in Saturation Mode - I/V Characteristics
Net Ic decreases as the device enters saturation because part of the controlled current is provided by the BC diode and need not flow from the collector terminal
Ic vs. Vce
-Ic falls for Vce less than V1
PNP Transistor: Operation
Emitter heavily doped (p+)
Active region
- BE Junction : FB (Vbe < 0)
- BC Junction : RB (Vbc > 0)
PNP Transistor: Active Mode
Majority carries in E (holes) are injected into B and swept away into C
Linear profile of holes formed in B to allow diffusion
Small number of base majority carriers (electrons) injected into E or recombined with holes in B, creating the base current
Base and collector voltage lower than emitter voltages
Large signal model - conventional current always flows from a positive supply toward lower potential
NPN —> C to E
PNP —> E to C
Large signal model - distinction between active and saturation regions based on the BC Junction bias
NPN —> collector voltage not lower than base voltage
PNP —> collector voltage must be higher than base voltage
Bipolar Amplifiers: at the input
Circuit must operate as a voltmeter
Ideal impedance = infinity
Output remains open because it is not connected to any external sources
Bipolar Amplifiers: at the output
Circuit must behave as a voltage source
Ideal impedance = 0
Input shorted to represent 0 voltage
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing - 2 objectives
Ensure operation in the forward active region
Set Ic to the value required in the application
Bipolar Amplifiers: Simple Biasing
Base tied to VCC through a large Rb, so as to FB BE junction
Calculation of Vce necessary as it reveals whether the device operates in the active mode or not
To avoid saturation completely: Vce > Vbe
Operating at the edge of active and saturation modes: Vce = Vbe
Ib —> Ic —> Vce
Bipolar Amplifiers: Simple Biasing - disadvantages
More sensitive to Vbe variations among transistors or with temperature
If beta increases from 100 to 120, then Ic rises and Vce falls, driving the transistor to heavy saturation
Bipolar Amplifiers: Resistive Divider Biasing
Ib not negligible —> replace voltage divider with a Thevenin equivalent
Vbe —> Ib —> Ic
Exponential dependence of Ic upon the voltage generated by the resistive divider still leads to substantial bias variations
1% error in one resistor values introduces a 36% error in Ic
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration
Alleviates the problem of sensitivity to beta and Vbe
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration - Re
Resistor Re in series with emitter, thereby lowering sensitivity to Vbe
- occurs because Re exhibits a linear I-V relationship
- an error in VX due to inaccuracies in R1, R2, or VCC is partly absorbed by Re, introducing a small error in Vbe and hence Ic
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration - I1»_space; Ib
To lower sensitivity in beta
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration - Vre must be large enough
100mV to several hundred mV
To suppress the effect of uncertainties in Vx and Vbe
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration - Design procedure
Use gm to find Ic Find Vbe Assume Vre = 200mV and find Re Find R1+R2 using 10Ib Find R2 then R1 Find Rc
Bipolar Amplifiers: Biasing with Emitter Degeneration - overly conservative design problems
If I1»_space; Ib, then R1+R2 are quite small, leading to a low input impedance
If Vre large, then Vx (=Vbe+Vre) must be high, thereby limiting the minimum value of the collector voltage to avoid saturation (Rc smaller)
Bipolar Amplifiers: Self-Biased Stage
Called “self-biased” because base current and voltage are provided from the collector
Vb always lower than Vc
- guarantees that it operates in active mode
- if Rc increases indefinitely, transistor remains in active region
Bipolar Amplifiers: Self-Biased Stage - important guidelines for design
VCC-Vbe must be much greater than the uncertainties in the value of Vbe
Rc must be much greater than Rb/beta to lower sensitivity to beta
Bipolar Amplifiers: Self-Biased Stage - design procedure
Calculate Ic using gm
Calculate Vbe
Find Rc then Rb
Common Emitter Topology
Input —> base
Output —> collector
Emitter terminal grounded
Small increment of deltaV applied to base increases Ic by gm(deltaV) and hence the voltage drop across Rc by gm(deltaV)(Rc)
Common Emitter Topology: Analysis of CE Core
Small signal gain negative because raising Vb and hence Ic lowers Vout
Gain proportional to gm and Rc
Input impedance decreases as collector bias increases
Output impedance trades with voltage gain
Rc fixed, voltage gain increased by increasing Ic, lowering both the voltage headroom and the input impedance
Early effect limits the voltage gain even if Rc approaches infinity
Common Emitter Topology: Analysis of CE Core - design
Ic — > assume value for Vbe —> Rc —> voltage gain
Intrinsic gain
No external device loads the circuit
Represents the maximum voltage gain provided by a signal transistor
Independent of bias current
Common Emitter Topology: CE Stage with Emitter Degeneration
Improves linearity of the circuit
Voltage gain of the degenerated state lower than that of the CE core with no degeneration
-reduction in gain incurred to improve other aspects of the performance
Increases input impedance of the CE stage
Common Emitter Topology: CE Stage with Emitter Degeneration - adding a capacitor
If C is very large, acts as a short circuit
Common Emitter Topology: CE Stage with Emitter Degeneration - adding Rb
Only degrades the performance but often proves inevitable (scaled down by beta+1)
Coupling capacitor
Used to isolate the bias conditions from undesirable effects
Bias point of Q remains independent of the resistance because C carries no bias current
Value chosen so that it provides a low impedance (almost a short circuit)
Output impedance»_space; load impedance
Connection of the load to the amplifier drops gain
Fix with voltage divider circuit and capacitive coupling
Rin = r(pi)||R1||R2 Rout = Rc||ro
Use of capacitor to eliminate degeneration
Lowers gain but stabilizes bias point despite beta and Is
Av = -gmRc
Rin = r(pi)||R1||R2
Rout = Rc
Use of capacitor to eliminate degeneration: design
Re Ce Rc Vbe then Vx then R1+R2 using 10Ib If Rin low, use 5Ib
CE stage with Rs and Rl
Lowers voltage gain
Common Base Topology
Input —> emitter
Output —> collector
Base grounded
If Vin goes up by a small amount deltaV, the base emitter voltage decreases by the same amount because Vb is fixed. Ic falls by gm(deltaV), allowing Vout to rise by gm(deltaV)(Rc)
Emitter Follower
Input —> base
Output —> emitter
Collector grounded
If Vin rises by a small amount deltaVin, Vbe tends to increase, raising Ie and Ic. Higher Ie —> higher Vout
Vout always lower than Vin by an amount equal to Vbe —> level shift
Change in Vout cannot be large than change in Vin
- if the output changes by a greater amount than the input, then Vbe2 < Vbe1
- decreases Ie and Vout
Gain <= 1
Acts as a voltage divider
Emitter Follower with Rs
Transforms Rs to a much lower value, providing higher “driving” capability
Operates as a good “voltage buffer” because it displays a high input impedance (voltmeter) and a low output impedance (voltage source)
Input and output depend on the load and source impedances
Voltage amplifiers
Must ideally provide a high input impedance (to sense a voltage without disturbing the node) and a low output impedance (to drive a load without reduction in gain)
Impedance looking into the base
Rpi
Impedance looking into collector
Ro
Impedance looking into emitter
1/gm
CE stage provides
Moderate voltage gain, input impedance, and output impedance
Emitter degeneration pros
Improves linearity but lowers voltage gain
Raises output impedance of CE stages
CB stage provides
Moderate voltage gain, low input impedance, moderate output impedance
Emitter follower provides
High input impedance, lower output impedance, voltage gain less than 1