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test 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

accomodation

A

the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones in order to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information.

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2
Q

developmental psychology

A

the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan

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3
Q

some dev. psychs try to argue the nature-nurture debate how?

A

think of each child as born with certain vulnerabilities, such as a difficult temperament or a genetic disorder along with certain protective factors, such as high IQ.

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4
Q

one of the most important questions in dev. psych

A

whether a child who is acting out is going through a “phase” or “stage” or not.

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5
Q

how do changes in developmental variables occur?

A

in stages

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6
Q

longitudinal study

A

a type of developmental study in which the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages

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7
Q

cross-sectional study

A

a type of developmental study in which researchers compare groups of participants of different ages on various characteristics to determine age-related differences

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8
Q

strongest evidence for developmental changes

A

comes from research that includes both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies.

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9
Q

at birth, what is the infant’s vision

A

20/600

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10
Q

what age does a child reach 20/20?

A

age 2

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11
Q

visual cliff

A

an apparatus used to measure infants’ ability to perceive depth.

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12
Q

what is well developed at birth?

A

hearing

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13
Q

neonates

A

able to discriminate among and show preferences for certain odors and tastes

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14
Q

habituation

A

a decrease in response or attention to a stimulus as an infant becomes accustomed to it

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15
Q

temperament

A

a person’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment

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16
Q

what 3 scientists discovered 3 types of infant temperament

A

• Alexander Thomas, Stella Chess, and Herbert Birch

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17
Q

easy children

A

have generally pleasant moods, are adaptable, approach new situations and people positively, and establish regular sleeping, eating, and elimination patterns

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18
Q

difficult children

A

have generally unpleasant moods, react negatively to new situations and people, are intense in their emotional reactions, and show irregularity of bodily functions.

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19
Q

slow to warm up children

A

tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, and are prone to negative emotional states

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20
Q

temperament involves several dimensions

A

activity level, sociability, inhibition, negative emotionality, and effortful control

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21
Q

• Research indicates that temperament is strongly influenced by

A

heredity, but is also affected by • Environmental factors, such as parents’ child-rearing style

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22
Q

attachment

A

the emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver.

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23
Q

• Bowlby claimed that attachment serves

A

as the adaptive function of protecting infants from dangers in the environment.

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24
Q

separation anxiety

A

the fear and distress shown by infants and toddlers when the parent leaves, occurring from 8 to 24 months and reaching a peak between 12 and 18 months

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25
Q

stranger anxiety

A

, a fear of strangers common in infants at about 6 or 7 months of age, which increases in intensity until about 12½ months and then declines.

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26
Q

secure infants

A

show distress on separation from mother and happiness when mother returns; use mother as safe base for exploration

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27
Q

avoidant infants

A

do not show distress when mother leaves and are indifferent when mother returns

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28
Q

resistant infants

A

may cling to mother before she leaves and show anger when mother returns; may push mother away; do not explore environment when mother is present; difficult to comfort when upset.

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29
Q

disorganised/disoriented infants

A

may show distress when mother leaves and alternate between happiness, indifference, and anger when mother returns; often look away from mother or look at her with expressionless face.

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30
Q

organization

A

Piaget’s term for a mental process that uses specific experiences to make inferences that can be generalized to new experiences

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31
Q

scheme

A

is a generic plan of action, based on previous experiences, to be used in circumstances that are similar to those in which it was constructed.

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32
Q

assimilation

A

the mental process by which new objects, events, experiences, and information are incorporated into existing schemes.

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33
Q

equilibration

A

is the mental process that motivates humans to keep schemes in balance with the real environment.

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34
Q

accomodation

A

the mental process of modifying existing schemes and creating new ones in order to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, and information.

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35
Q

sensorimotor stage

A

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development in which infants gain an understanding of their world through their senses and their motor activities; culminates with the development of object permanence and the beginning of representational thought.

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36
Q

object permanence

A

develops during this stage and is the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight

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37
Q

preoperational stage

A

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the development and refinement of schemes for symbolic representation.

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38
Q

egocentrism

A

believe that everyone sees what they see, thinks as they think, and feels as they feel

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39
Q

animistic thinking

A

the belief that inanimate objects are alive.

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40
Q

centration

A

a preoperational child’s tendency to focus on only one dimension of a stimulus.

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41
Q

concrete operations stage

A

is Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development during which a child acquires the concepts of reversibility and conservation and is able to attend to two or more dimensions of a stimulus at the same time.

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42
Q

reversibility

A

is the fact that when only the appearance of a substance has been changed, it can be returned to its original state.

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43
Q

conservation

A

the understanding that a given quantity of matter remains the same if it is rearranged or changed in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away.

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44
Q

formal operations stage

A

is Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development which is characterized by the ability to apply logical thinking to abstract problems and hypothetical situations.

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45
Q

socialization

A

• Socialization is the process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values. Families, peers, and information derived from entertainment and information media contribute to socialization.

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46
Q

authoritarian parenst

A

make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority.

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47
Q

authoritative parents

A

set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence

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48
Q

permissive parents

A

make few rules or demands and usually do not enforce those that are made; they allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior

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49
Q

neglecting parents

A

are permissive and are not involved in their children’s lives.

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50
Q

• The peer group serves as

A

socializing function by providing models of behavior, dress, and language. It is a continuing source of both reinforcement for appropriate behavior and punishme

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51
Q

context of development

A

is Bronfenbrenner’s term for the interrelated and layered settings (family, neighborhood, culture, etc.) in which a child grows up.

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52
Q

genetic determinsim

A

The idea that genes alone determine everything about us, including behavior.

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53
Q

genotype

A

The genetic information you received from your parents

54
Q

phenotype

A

The sum total of all the physical characteristics of an individual, including behavior.

55
Q

gene expression

A

When a cell uses a gene to make a particular protein

56
Q

How do cells control gene expression?

A

Segments of DNA that lie adjacent to genes can determine which genes will be expressed.

57
Q

epigenetics

A

The study of factors that affect gene expression.

58
Q

what are examples of epigenetics?

A

environment and experience

59
Q

schizophrenia

A

a mental disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and emotional withdrawal

60
Q

twin studies

A

Twins have the same mother, develop in the same uterus, are born at nearly the same time, and usually grow up in the same environment.

61
Q

identical twins

A

A single embryo splits into two;

62
Q

monozygotic twins

A

the twins have exactly the same genes.

63
Q

non identical twins

A

Two different sperm fertilize two different eggs at the same time;

64
Q

dizygotic twins

A

same amount of genetic relationship as normal siblings

65
Q

concordant

A

if both twins have the same trait

66
Q

discordant

A

if one twin has a trait and the other does not

67
Q

a trait is more likely to be heritable

A

if it is influenced by one or more genes inherited from the parents

68
Q

heritability

A

a statistical estimate of what percentage of variation for a trait is caused by the various genotypes

69
Q

heritability estimates only tell us about

A

populations of people, not about a particular person.

70
Q

adoption studies

A

When twins are raised apart from each other.

71
Q

concordance rate for schizophrenia

A

higher in monozygotic twins raised apart than in dizygotic twins raised apart.

72
Q

What environmental factors are important in schizophrenia?

A

exposure to stressors such as disease, malnutrition, and neglect increase the likelihood of developing the disease. also it is more common in cities due to more stressful of a life.

73
Q

Most people develop symptoms of schizophrenia

A

in transition from adolescence to adulthood

74
Q

strongest evidence from role of stress

A

come from twin studies

75
Q

Many studies of identical twins discordant for schizophrenia indicate

A

that the twin who developed schizophrenia was subjected to greater stress, such as complications at birth

76
Q

sensation

A

The process of detecting a stimulus from the environment; the conversion of physical energy into neural energy

77
Q

perception

A

Perception is the translation of the physical world into a pattern of neural activity that can be used by the brain to guide behavior

78
Q

bottom-up processing

A

Processing based on incoming stimuli from the environment

Also called data-based processing

79
Q

top-down processing

A

Processing based on the perceiver’s previous knowledge (cognitive factors)
Also called knowledge-based processing

80
Q

sensory receptors

A

In all sensory systems, initial contact with the outside world occurs via sensory receptors. Each receptor is sensitive primarily to one type of physical energy.

81
Q

stimunlus transduction

A

A conversion of the stimulus energy into a nerve impulse.

82
Q

neural coding

A

The local neural signal evokes a discharge of nerve impulses that represent specific information about the quality of the stimulus.

83
Q

effect of environmental stimuli

A

triggers neural activity

84
Q

neural patterns

A

symbols for environmental events that occur in the physical world.

85
Q

perception is….

A

is the interpretation of neural symbols

86
Q

All sensory systems-not only human-rely on the same basic principles of

A

info processing

87
Q

modality

A

Different forms of energy-mechanical, light, thermal- are transformed into different qualities of sensations

88
Q

intensity

A

The intensity or amount of sensation depends on the strength of the stimulus.

89
Q

duration

A

The “perceived” duration is both a function of the physical duration of a stimulus and stimulus intensity.

90
Q

psychophysical approach

A

the stimulus-perception relationship

91
Q

physiological approach

A

the stimulus-physiology relationship / the physiology and perception relationship

92
Q

psychophysics is now a branch of

A

of perception concerned with establishing quantitative relations between physical stimulation (e.g., light) and perceptual events

93
Q

What is psychophysics according to Fechner?

A

Since sensations must arise from an interaction between the physical and psychological worlds, Fechner believed if he could quantify the sensations evoked by various stimuli, he would be able to develop equations that would tie the two worlds together.

94
Q

psychophysics

A

are a set of procedures used to measure sensations that physical stimuli evoke in human observers.

95
Q

absolute threshold

A

smallest amount of energy needed to detect a stimulus

96
Q

difference threshold

A

smallest difference between two stimuli a person can detect. the change in stimulus intensity necessary for it to be perceived as different.

97
Q

fechners law

A

larger changes in stimulus intensity are required for the same sensory effect at higher intensities

98
Q

The formation of an image upon the retina depends upon several factors.

A
  1. Reflected light is structured by objects in the environment
    Light must be able to penetrate the eye.
    The distribution of light (I.e., the retinal image) must be properly focused.
    Patterns of light falling on the retina must preserve the spatial structure of the objects.
99
Q

the optic disk

A

disk is where ganglion cell axons leave the retina.

100
Q

rods count

A

100 million

101
Q

cones count

A

7 millon

102
Q

rods

A 
Mostly in the periphery
More light sensitive
Detect light and dark
Insensitive to red
Take 20-30 minutes to fully adapt to darkness
103
Q

cones

A 
Mostly in the fovea
Less light sensitive
Detect colors
Have best detail vision
Adapt fully to darkness in 2-3 minutes
104
Q

three types of cones

A

M cones, S cones, L cones

105
Q

M cones

A

sensitive to green

106
Q

S cones

A

sensitive to blue

107
Q

L cones

A

sensitive to red

108
Q

pitch

A

determind by frequency

109
Q

loudness

A

determined by amplitude

110
Q

timbre

A

Complexity of the sound (number of component waves involved in it)

111
Q

oval window

A

where vibrations of the eardrum are passed to

112
Q

ossicles

A

small bones that pass the vibration of the eardrum to the oval window

113
Q

3 ossicles of the middle ear

A

malleus, incus, and stapes

114
Q

organ of corti

A

generates neural responses to the vibrations of the inner ear. located on the basilar membrane, contains rows of hair cells under the arch of a tectorial membrane

115
Q

Helmholtz

A

believed that each location on the basilar membrane was independent of any other region. , information about a particular frequency of an incoming sound wave was coded by which segment of the basilar membrane vibrated in response to the sound.
Maintains that different frequencies of vibration of the cochlea fluid disturb different regions of the basilar membrane.

116
Q

neurogenisis

A

the divison of cells that becomes neurons

117
Q

6 processes of development of the brain

A
  1. proliferation (cell generation)
  2. migration (scatter and form clumps of cells that will become brain regions)
  3. differentiation (go where they will specialize, turn into the type of neuron they are supposed to be)
  4. synaptogenesis (construction of neural circuits)
  5. neural cell death
  6. modification (modification by neural activity after birth)
118
Q

plasticity

A

the ability of the brain to change in structure or function. young brains are much more plastic than adult brains. while recovery is more likely for a child, permanent brain damage is mrore likely for an adult

119
Q

how do psychologists “read” a childs mind?

A

keeping track of their eye movements

120
Q

habituation tecnique

A

a method of discerning individuals recognition of a stimulus by determining whether they show us evident of habituating to that stimulus

121
Q

Piaget’s view of how cognitive development unfolds

A
  1. child is an active participant in adapting to the world

2. there are distinct stages of cog. dev that a child must go through to think like an adult

122
Q

piagets view of hold a child grows into an adult

A

a childs mind is organzied differently than an adults, with its own special logic. as the child grows, it reorganzies its thought process in successive stages of complexity until it reasons like an adult

123
Q

sensory receptor cells

A

specialized sensory cells that detect stimuli

124
Q

sensory receptor organ

A

a clump of receptor cells, all detecting a particular kind of stimulus

125
Q

threshold

A

the weakest possible stimulus that still affects a sensory cell’s firing

126
Q

absolute threshold

A

the lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected half the time

127
Q

photoreceptors

A

light sensitve receptors in the retina

128
Q

gestalt principle of perception

A
  1. rule of continuity - explains why we have an interuppted field of vision, despite our blind spots
  2. rule of proximity - we haave a tendancy to percieve objects that are close to one another as part of a whole
  3. rule of similarity - more figures resemble each other in color, texture, shape, and so on
  4. rule of closure - perception fills in gaps, closing them off to percieve an object
  5. rule of symmetry - we percieve symmetrical lines as being part of a single object
129
Q

how does the cochlea work

A
  1. vibrations from the stapes puushes on the oval window, sending vibrations into the fluid inside the cochlea
  2. vibrating fluid causes the membranes to vibrate too
130
Q

how do we use our ears to find where a sound is coming from

A

two ears help us do this. cues called binaral cues help us with 1. intensity differences : comparison of the intensities that reach the 2 ears and 2. sound shadows: the head absorbs a sounds lessening its intensity on the side oppositie the sound source

131
Q

chemical processes of taste

A
  1. taste buds
  2. taste pore - chemicals in the mouth encounter the surface of taste receptor cells
  3. taste receptor cells - stimulate axons in the base of the taste bud to send action potentials to the brain
  4. tastant - a chemical that encounters the taste receptor cell and excites it
132
Q

chemical processes of smell

A
  1. olfactory receptor neurons detects odors and are embedded in a sheet of cells, olfactory epithelium, lined inside the nose.
  2. molecules smlled are called odorants
  3. as ordorants enter and land on the olfactory epithelium, they may bind to the receptor neuron
  4. this binding may excite or inhibit firing of the receptor neuron
  5. when the neurons fire, they send impulses along their axons which pass thru the tiny holes in the skill to stimulate the neurons in the olfactory bulb in the brain.

intro to psych (3 decks)

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