Test 2 Flashcards
What are ways one can check how rehearsal effects the memory?
Run an experiment that has one group that rehearses and one that doesn’t and occupy people so they have no rehearsal time between trials
Empirical Evidence Support Rehearsal Effects
Craik and Watkin’s experiment where people rehearse without knowing they’re rehearsing. They hear a list of words and are told that they need to recall the last word that starts with a ‘g’ so they constantly rehearse the most previous ‘g’ word, unknowingly rehearsing all of the other ‘g’ words. After they’re done hearing the list, the experimenters tell them to recall all other ‘g’ words that were in the list. The IV was the number of intervening items in between the target ‘g’ words. They found that there were not any significant differences and that the amount of rehearsal time didn’t change anything. They claim that rehearsal is not a reliable strategy for memory.
What are the 4 assumptions of memory processing?
The process of memory generally exists on a continuum ranging from shallow to deep. So if shallow processing is occurring, there is a less likely chance that that certain memory will be reliable and vice versa. The type of processing done predicts reliability of the memory. Types of rehearsal also affects/determines how a memory is processed. Maintenance rehearsal, for example, represents shallow processing because one is not purely trying to learn/remember it.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Deep Vs. Shallow Processing
Hyde and Jenkin’s experiment had people read a list of words. 1 group knew of the following memory test, 1 group did not and the control was told to just memorize the list (IV #1). These people then had to take/do some orienting tasks to encode the words. These tasks were tallying certain letters and noting their part of speech (shallow) and noting their frequency and pleasantness (deep). The DV was measuring how many words were remembered. The results were that there is no significant difference between the first two groups in the IV1. Having knowledge of a memory test after does not affect the results. The encoding stage tasks did vary in results though, superficial tests had low recall and deep ones had high recall.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Deep Vs. Shallow Processing
Hyde and Jenkin’s experiment had people read a list of words. 1 group knew of the following memory test, 1 group did not and the control was told to just memorize the list (IV #1). These people then had to take/do some orienting tasks to encode the words. These tasks were tallying certain letters and noting their part of speech (shallow) and noting their frequency and pleasantness (deep). The DV was measuring how many words were remembered. The results were that there is no significant difference between the first two groups in the IV1. Having knowledge of a memory test after does not affect the results. The encoding stage tasks did vary in results though, superficial tests had low recall and deep ones had high recall.
What was the levels of processing in Coglab about?
We had an orient task consisting of judging the words based on upper/lowercase, rhyming, or a similar meaning. The DV was the proportion of studied words recognized.
What is elaboration and what does it lead to?
It is the expansion on the depth of something/concept. When more info is added and being able to connect one thing to previous knowledge. It can lead to redundant encoding.
What is redundant encoding and what are its benefits?
Redundant encoding is having more than one way to encode something. It is beneficial because it allows for alternate retrieval routes (having another way to get back) and it supports inferences/assumptions
What is the generation effect?
Generating info yourself allows you to be more likely to remember it rather than if someone else tells you it/you read it
Empirical Evidence Supporting Generation Effect
Slamecka and Graf conducted a 2x2 experiment. They had a group of people that were required to generate the correct word and another group that read the right word. Within each group, they had to come up with/read a word that rhymed with the first and one that was a synonym. Comparing the test within the groups (rhyme vs synonym), there was statistically significant evidence proving that they were more likely to remember the synonymous word. Between the generate vs read group, the participants were statistically significant more likely to remember the word if they generated it themselves.
What is forgetting
Information encoded and then forgotten
Empirical Evidence Supporting Forgetting
Herman Ebbinghaus was interested in the ‘pure’ memory and did a study on himself. He used CVC trigrams and was measuring the savings (new time divided by original time to remember, %). He created a list of nonsense words and tested how long it took him to relearn it, the same list. He did this multiple times at various retention intervals. His results were that the forgetting function shows that people forget early on rather than later. “Forgetting occurs over the mere passage of time.”
What was the problem with Ebbinghaus’ finding?
His statement was untestable because there can be other factors that influence memory and forgetting
What causes people to forget?
Decay
Interference
Amnesia
Empirical Evidence of Decay
Jenkins and Dallenback had 2 participants stay in the lab for months. They learned a list of syllables that they were asked to recall. The recall retention interval warned by length and how it was filled (with activities or sleep). If the 2 people would have been there longer, they would have eventually had the same results. But these results showed that there is lower amount of recall if the retention interval is filled with an activity rather than sleep. People are unsure if it is because of decay as well as what the interval is filled with.
What are the types of memory interference?
Retroactive
Proactive
What is retroactive interference?
Learning new info makes it harder to remember something previously learned
Empirical Evidence Supporting Retroactive Interference
An experimental group and control group learn two lists of word pairs. The experimental group gets the 2 words in the first list and then the second list contains 1 same word and 1 new word. They are then tested to see if the second list interfered with their remembering of the first by being asked what the first pair of words was. The control group was given the same first list as experimental group but they did not get a second pair, to prevent the interference.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Retroactive Interference
An experimental group and control group learn two lists of word pairs. The experimental group gets the 2 words in the first list and then the second list contains 1 same word and 1 new word. They are then tested to see if the second list interfered with their remembering of the first by being asked what the first pair of words was. The control group was given the same first list as experimental group but they did not get a second pair, to prevent the interference.
What is proactive interference?
Past information interferes with your ability to learn something new
What is proactive interference?
Past information interferes with your ability to learn something new
Empirical Evidence Supporting Proactive Interference
An experimental and control group were given 2 lists of word pairs to learn. The experimental group was given the first word pair and then the second word pair with 1 word different. They were then tested for the second list to see if the first pair interfered with learning the second. The control group doesn’t get a first pair, but they get the same second one as experimental group. This is to reassure that the new info in experimental group interferes with the old.
What are the types of amnesia?
Retrograde
Anterograde
What is retrograde amnesia?
Difficulty remembering things in the past
What is anterograde amnesia?
Unable to make new memories or store any new information in the long term store
What are the types of memory distortion?
Constructive Processing
Reconstructive Processing
What is constructive processing?
At the time of encoding, you are relying on schema to understand the story and then you store your interpretation rather than the exact story
What is reconstructive processing?
It happens at the time of retrieval and you may have encoded/remembered the story exactly, but at the state/time of retrieval, your own schema interferes with recall and you report different stories or parts of it
What is schema?
A large unit of organized info used for representing concepts, situations, events, and actions in memory. It is like you already have this framework that allows you to think/retrieve info differently than other people based on previous knowledge
What is schema?
A large unit of organized info used for representing concepts, situations, events, and actions in memory. It is like you already have this framework that allows you to think/retrieve info differently than other people based on previous knowledge.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Schema & Memory Distortions
Sir Frederic Bartlett chose to have people remember a narrative rather than just a word list. He chose a narrative that was unusual, unknown, and a weird story that was not the norm for certain cultures. They were told to reproduce, with as much detail possible, as much of the story they could after certain time intervals. The recall from people was rarely accurate and left out unusual details that they didn’t ‘like’. They reinterpreted it to fit their schema.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Schema & Memory Distortions
Sir Frederic Bartlett chose to have people remember a narrative rather than just a word list. He chose a narrative that was unusual, unknown, and a weird story that was not the norm for certain cultures. They were told to reproduce, with as much detail possible, as much of the story they could after certain time intervals. The recall from people was rarely accurate and left out unusual details that they didn’t ‘like’. They reinterpreted it to fit their schema.
What is serial reproduction?
Reproducing as much of something as you can, with as much possible detail
What is retrograde amnesia?
Difficulty remembering things in the past
What is anterograde amnesia?
Unable to make new memories or store any new information in the long term store
What is constructive processing?
At the time of encoding, you are relying on schema to understand the story and then you store your interpretation rather than the exact story.
What is reconstructive processing?
It happens at the time of retrieval and you may have encoded/remembered the story exactly, but at the state/time of retrieval, your own schema interferes with recall and you report different stories or parts of it.
What is serial reproduction?
Reproducing as much of something as you can, with as much possible detail.
What was different about Bartlett’s work compared to others?
He examined memory for meaningful info rather than just one word. He changed his perspective from quantity-oriented (how many) to correspondence oriented (what/why/when). He focused on how your memory matched the stuff presented to you. Mainly, he regarded process of learning and remembering as active.
Empirical Evidence of Schema
Sulin & Dooling’s experiment consisted of them splitting people into 2 groups and having them read the exact same story. Group 1 was told theirs was about ‘Carol Harris’ and group 2 was told theirs was about ‘Helen Keller’. They were then given a recognition test a week later. It was a list of sentences that they had to decide if each were in the paragraph that they read. One critical sentence was ‘She was deaf, mute, and blind.” The Hellen Keller group were more likely to misinterpret that they thought it was in their passage because they were using schema/previous knowledge of who Hellen Keller was.
What is the problem with the first Carol Harris/Hellen Keller experiment?
It is not possible to tell what the schema state (encoding or retrieving) is. Since they wanted to know when their schema affected people’s memory, Dooling conducted a different but similar experiment.
Dooling’s 2nd Experiment Showing Empirical Support for Schema
He had a group of people read about ‘Carol Harris’, exact same paragraph as first experiment. They all came back to take the recognition sentence test a week later. Half of the group was told that the testers made a mistake and the story was actually about Hellen Keller, not Carol and the other half was told nothing. The results showed that the Hellen Keller group still mistook the ‘deaf, mute, blind’ sentence and thought it was in the paragraph. Because they had no/restricted schema during encoding, it is likely that it was a retrieval memory error due to schema at retrieval.
Dooling’s 2nd Experiment Showing Empirical Support for Schema
He had a group of people read about ‘Carol Harris’, exact same paragraph as first experiment. They all came back to take the recognition sentence test a week later. Half of the group was told that the testers made a mistake and the story was actually about Hellen Keller, not Carol and the other half was told nothing. The results showed that the Hellen Keller group still mistook the ‘deaf, mute, blind’ sentence and thought it was in the paragraph. Because they had no/restricted schema during encoding, it is likely that it was a retrieval memory error due to schema at retrieval.
Empirical Evidence Supporting Schema
Bransford & Johnson gave each of their participants a paragraph to read. Half of the group had a paragraph without a title and the other half had a paragraph with a title. People without a title were allowed to read it more than once but they were still worse at recalling each sentence exactly than the ones with a title. The title was used as the schema, which helped the participants in enabling them to remember the paragraph almost word for word.
How are false memories and schemas related?
Having a schema for something can help remember forgotten things but they can also create false memories. Schemas can make you recall things that aren’t there but related
Empirical Evidence of False Memories & Schema
Participants were given a list of words that relate to a word (critical non presented word) that was never put on the list, but was asked on the test. The list also contained words that were unrelated (unrelated lure, false alarm). The IV in this was they type of item on the test/in the list (unrelated lure, critical lure, actual word on list). The DV was the percent recognition of each type of word.
Why does false alarm with critical lure occur?
Because you have to have a schema with the words that relate to each other so it would ‘make sense’ for the critical lure to have been on the list.
What are the requirements for something to be considered a semantic model?
It must account for efficient search and retrieval of info, allow for the ability to make inferences, and account for a vast amount of knowledge
What is the structure of semantic network model?
That entries (concepts) are represented by nodes and the nodes are linked to other nodes by pathways. These nodes and associations are arranged in a hierarchy, a cognitive economy.
What is a cognitive economy in the semantic network model?
It reduces redundancy by storing ‘like’/’related’ nodes at the highest possible level. Exceptions are noted and are stored under that specific node. Everything beneath one node has all traits of the node(s) above it.
How does semantic network model spread activation?
Nodes are relatively ‘quiet’ when not activated but when they are, related nodes (of the activated one) are a little bit activated too because it travels the pathways and spreads
What is priming?
Facilitation in responding to a stimulus as a function of prior to the same or related stimulus. It demonstrates implicit memory.
What are two types of priming?
Semantic
Repetition
What is the Lexical Decision Task?
A test to see how fast/accurate one can decide if a word is a word or not
Empirical Evidence of Semantic Priming
Using the LDT to provide a series of words. The IV is the relatedness of the word previous to a word. DV is measure the reaction time. One chooses a word faster if the one before it is related to it because it is already a little activated due to the spread of activation.
Empirical Evidence of Semantic Priming
Using the LDT to provide a series of words. The IV is the relatedness of the word previous to a word. DV is measure the reaction time. One chooses a word faster if the one before it is related to it because it is already a little activated due to the spread of activation.
Empirical Evidence of Repetition Priming
Use LDT to provide a series of words. The IV is deciding whether or not the same word precedes. The DV is the measured reaction time. This type can be faster than semantic.
What is the prediction for stimulus examples of the semantic network model?
Further from each other on the scale would make one slower in reaction/responding and the closer they are, they’d be faster.
What are the problems with the semantic network model?
Typicality effects, reversals of semantic distance effect, data refuting cog economy
Why is there typicality effects in semantic network model?
Each node is supposedly equidistance from another but more common things will be chosen faster than atypical objects
What does the feature comparison model assume?
There’s no cog economy and the concepts in semantic memory are represented as sets of elements called ‘semantic features’. It states that instead of a ‘chart’ of nodes, everything has a list of features that gets compared to everything else by comparing lists.
What is the structure and process of feature comparison model?
The structure if the defining features and the characteristic features of an object. The process is comparing the list of multiple objects.
What does defining features mean?
These features have to be present in every example of a concept to be true.
What does defining features mean?
These features have to be present in every example of a concept to be true.
What does characteristic features mean?
Features that are usually present but not always or necessary. They are usually things we know to be true and everything about each topic.
What is feature comparison?
When one concept is activated, it activates everything on the list. Lists are then overlapped to compare
What are the advantages of feature comparison model?
It can explain typicality effects and why some false statements take longer to verify (because of similar defining features slowing us down).
What are the criticisms of feature comparison model?
It assumes that concepts have defining features that we can identify and it assumes that all of our classifications require comparisons, which would be labor intensive
What are the criticisms of feature comparison model?
It assumes that concepts have defining features that we can identify and it assumes that all of our classifications require comparisons, which would be labor intensive
What is a concept?
Mental representations of an object or event that includes much of the knowledge that is relevant to that object or event
What is a category?
A class of objects that are grouped together that reflects your concept
What ways are concepts represented in memories?
Classical View
Prototype View
Exemplar View
What is abstraction theory?
Idea of storing your extracted ideas
What concept views are abstraction theories?
Classical View
Prototype View
