Test 2 Flashcards
What is weather?
The variation in temperature,
precipitation (and other atmospheric
variables) over periods of hours to days
What is climate?
the typical atmospheric conditions
that occur throughout the year, averaged
over many years
What is the greenhouse effect?
the process of solar radiation striking Earth,
being converted to infrared radiation, and being absorbed andre-emitted by atmospheric gases.
What are the most prevalent greenhouse gasses?
H2O and CO2 (others include nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4
), and ozone (O3
) )
What is Albedo?
the fraction of solar energy reflected by an object.
What is the Albedo of a forest vs snow and how does it affect them?
Forests have low albedo which increases average temperature and snow has a high albedo which contributes to the cooler temperature
What angle is the earth tilted at?
23.5 degrees
What is the solar equator?
The latitude where the sun is directly overhead at
noon. Its position varies over the year.
What is Adiabatic cooling?
the cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it
rises higher in the atmosphere and expands.
What is saturation point?
the maximum
amount of water vapor that air can
hold.
What is Adiabatic heating?
the heating effect of increased pressure on air as
it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume.
What are Hadley cells?
the two circulation cells of air between the equator and
30°N and 30°S latitudes.
What is the Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
the area where the two
Hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation.
What are polar cells?
atmospheric convection currents between 60° and
90° latitudes that are similar to Hadley cells.
What is a Ferrell Cell?
Between about 30
and 60 degrees
latitude is the Ferrel cell. The Ferrel cell is weak. It is driven by the currents in the Hadley and Polar Cells, not by changes in air density
What is the Coriolis Effect?
the deflection of an
object’s path due to the rotation of
Earth.
What are Gyres?
-large-scale water circulation in the oceans, clockwise in northern hemisphere, counterclockwise
in southern hemisphere
What is Upwelling?
an upward movement of ocean water. As water moves away, cold water from ocean depths is drawn
upward. This is typically on the western coasts of continents.
What is , the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO
Every 3–7 years, trade winds reverse
(i.e., oscillate), moving warm water in
the opposite direction
What is Thermohaline circulation?
a global pattern of surface- and deepwater currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and
salinity that change the density of water.
What is Rain Shadow?
a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side
of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean
causing precipitation on the windward side.
What is a biome?
one of several categories into which ecosystems can be
grouped based on climate and dominant plant forms.
What is Relyea’s definition of a biome?
A Biome is a geographic region that contains
communities composed of organisms with similar adaptations.
What is Convergent evolution?
a phenomenon in which two species
descended from unrelated ancestors have similar adaptations
because they have evolved under similar selective forces.
How does climate affect species and biomes?
climate controls the distribution of
biomes through its impact on where individual
species can live
What are tropical seasonal forests/ savannas?
A biome with warm temperatures and
pronounced wet and dry seasons (due
to movement of the intertropical
convergence zone), dominated by
deciduous trees that shed leaves
during the dry season.
How are savannas and tropical seasonal forests two different biomes in the same climate?
In savannas, sparse tree cover leads to dense C4 grass in a hot and dry microclimate which leads to frequent fires. In tropical seasonal forests there is dense tree cover that leads to no C4 grass with a cool and moist microclimate and no fire.
What are temperate grasslands / cold deserts?
A biome characterized by hot, dry
summers and cold winters; dominated
by grasses, non-woody flowering
plants, and drought-adapted shrubs
(Also known as prairies, pampas,
steppes.)
What is a subtropical desert?
a biome characterized by hot temperatures, scarce rainfall, long
growing seasons, and sparse vegetation. plant growth is limited by water
What is a tundra?
A biome characterized by a treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil (permafrost), plant growth limited by temperature (the coldest biome)
What are tropical rainforests?
A warm and rainy biome where plant growth is not limited by temperature or water
What are (Mediterranean)
Woodlands/ shrublands
A biome characterized by hot, dry
summers and mild, wet winters, a
combination that favors the growth of
drought-tolerant shrubs.
(Also known Mediterranean climate,
chaparral, matorral, fynbos, and
maquis.)
What are boreal forests?
A biome dominated by evergreen
needle-leaved trees, with a short
growing season and severe winters.
What are temperate rainforests?
A biome known for mild temperatures
and abundant precipitation, and
dominated by evergreen forests. These forests typically support low
species diversity
What is a temperate seasonal rainforest?
A biome with moderate temperature
and precipitation conditions,
dominated by deciduous trees (e.g.,
maple, beech, and oak).
What is an ecotone?
region
where two
communities
come together
with a relatively
sharp boundary
What does lotic mean?
characterized by flowing water
What is a riparian zone?
terrestrial vegetation alongside rivers and streams that is influenced by seasonal flooding and elevated water tables.
What is allochthonous organic matter?
inputs into a stream from outside
what is autochthonous organic matter>
produced within
the ecosystem (produced by
algae and plants)
What is the definition of ponds and lakes?
An aquatic biome characterized by non-flowing
fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for plants to
rise above the water’s surface. (i.e. some area without emergent
vegetation)
What is a littoral zone?
the shallow area around the edge of a lake or pond
containing rooted vegetation.
What is a limnetic (pelagic) zone?
the open water beyond the littoral zone,
where the dominant photosynthetic organisms are floating algae
(i.e., phytoplankton).
What is a profundal zone?
the area in a
lake that is too deep to receive
sunlight; typically has low
concentrations of oxygen
What is a benthic zone?
the area with
sediments at the bottom of
lakes, ponds, and oceans; is
habitat for burrowing organisms.
What is stratification?
the condition of a lake or pond when the warmer, less dense
surface water floats on the cooler, denser water below.
What is the epilimnion layer?
the surface layer of water in
a stratified lake or pond.
What is the thermocline (or metalimnion) layer?
A middle
depth of water in a lake or pond that
experiences a rapid change in
temperature over a relatively short
distance in depth; slow mixing between
the epilimnion and hypolimnion.
What is the hypolimnion layer?
the deeper layer of water
in a lake or pond
What is spring overturn?
the vertical mixing of lake water that occurs in
early spring, assisted by winds that drive the surface currents.
What is fall overturn?
the vertical mixing that occurs in fall, assisted by
winds that drive the surface currents.
What is Fall bloom?
a rapid increase in the population of phytoplankton in
fall that occurs with the infusion of nutrients from fall overturn.
What is a freshwater wetland?
an aquatic biome
containing standing fresh water, or soils
saturated with fresh water for at least part
of the year; shallow enough for emergent
vegetation throughout all depths.
What is a salt marsh?
a saltwater biome that contains non-woody emergent
vegetation.
What is a mangrove swamp?
a biome that occurs along tropical and
subtropical coasts, and contains salt-tolerant trees with roots submerged in water.
What is an intertidal zone?
a biome consisting of the narrow band of coastline
between the levels of high tide and low tide.
What are coral reefs?
a marine biome found in
warm, shallow waters that are above 20°C
year-round. Greatest species diversity of
all aquatic biomes.
What is the Neritic zone?
the ocean zone beyond the range of the lowest tidal
level and which extends to the edge of the continental shelf (about
200 m); generally a region of high productivity.
What is the oceanic zone?
the ocean zone beyond the neritic zone; nutrients are
sparse and production is limited.
What is the photic zone?
the area of the neritic and oceanic zones that contains
sufficient light for photosynthesis by algae.
What is the aphotic zone?
the area of the neritic and oceanic zones where water
is so deep that sunlight cannot penetrate; less productive but
organisms have adaptations (e.g., chemosynthesis, bioluminescence).
What is life history?
The life history is the schedule of an organism’s life, including:
-age at maturity (first reproduction)
-number of reproductive events (parity)
-allocation of resources to reproduction
-number (fecundity) and size of offspring
-life span (also aging and senescence)
What influences life histories?
Life histories are influenced by: ■ body plan and life style of the
organism
■ evolutionary responses to many
factors, including: * physical conditions
* food supply
* predators
* other biotic factors, such as competition
What is a r species?
an organism that has a fast life history. aka short life with rapid development, low parental investment, and high reproductive rates
What is a K species?
an organism that has a slow life history. aka long life with slow development, high parental investment, and low reproductive rates
What is stress (in relation to plants)?
condition that reduces production (eg.
extreme temperatures, shortages of
nutrients, water, and light)
What is a disturbance (in relation to plants)?
Event that causes partial or
total destruction of plant biomass (eg.
herbivory, some pathogens, wind damage,
frost, fire, trampling, etc.)
Who coined the idea that plant life history depends on stress, competition, and frequency of disturbances?
J. Philip Grime
What is the principle of allocation?
when resources are devoted to one body
structure, physiological function, or behavior, they cannot be allotted
to another. These resources include energy, biomass, nutrients, time.
What are some examples of tradeoffs?
offspring number vs. size, offspring number vs. parental care, parental care vs. parental survival,
What is determinate growth?
a growth pattern in which an individual does
not grow any more once it initiates reproduction; typical of birds and
mammals.
What is indeterminate growth?
a growth pattern in which an individual
continues to grow after it initiates reproduction; occurs in many
species of plants, invertebrates, fishes, reptiles, and amphibians.
What is semelparity?
when organisms reproduce only once during their life;
relatively rare in vertebrates, but common in insects and plants
what is Iteroparity?
when organisms reproduce multiple times during their
life; common among birds, reptiles, mammals, and amphibians.
What is senescence?
a gradual decrease in fecundity and an increase in the
probability of mortality
What did David Lack Study?
Oxford University researcher who proposed
that the long summer days allow parents to
forage longer and find more food for the
chicks, allowing them to care for more chicks ( this is wrong they simply have different life histories)
What is binary fission?
reproduction
through duplication of genes
followed by division of the cell
into two identical cells.
What is parthenogenesis?
a form of asexual reproduction in which an embryo is produced without fertilization.
Do vegetatively produced offspring preform better or worse than seeds?
Vegetatively produced offspring are almost always larger and have higher survival than those produced from seed
What are some costs of sexual reproduction?
energy and resources, mating behaviors, cost of meiosis
What is the cost of meiosis?
the 50%
reduction in the number of a
parent’s genes passed on to the next generation via sexual
reproduction versus asexual
production; occurs because
sexual genes are haploid.
What are some benefits of sexual reproduction?
lose deleterious mutations, coping with environmental variation, coping with parasites and pathogens,
What is the red queen hypothesis?
species must continually evolve to avoid extinction caused by predators, competitors, and parasites, which are also evolving.
Why are 1:1 sex ratios so common among animals?
due to frequency-dependent selection the small group will experience higher fitness until a balance is reached
What is frequency dependent selection?
when the rarer phenotype
in a population is favored by natural selection.
What is local mate competition?
when competition for mates occurs in a
very limited area, and only a few males are required to fertilize all of
the females.
What is sexual dimorphism?
Differences are in secondary sexual characteristics: ■ distinguish sexes over and above primary sexual organs ■ typically related to size, ornamentation, coloration, and
courtship behavior
What are the hypotheses on how female choice evolved?
the good genes hypothesis, the good health hypothesis, and the handicap principal.
What is the good genes hypothesis?
the chosen trait indicates a superior genotype
What is the good health hypothesis?
the chosen trait indicates
the healthiest males
What is the handicap principal?
The greater the
imposed by the trait,
the greater the male
must be able to
offset the handicap
with other favorable
traits.
What is evolutionary fitness?
The reproductive success of an individual
What is social behavior?
Individuals interact with other members of the same species throughout their lives.
What are some advantages and disadvantages of living in groups?
there is less individual vigilance which leads to more efficient feeding and more rapid depletion of resources which means the flock must move more frequently
What are the 4 types of social interaction?
cooperation, selfishness, spitefulness, and altruism
What is cooperation?
donor and the recipient of a social behavior both
experience increased fitness from an interaction (e.g., when a groupof lions kill prey).
What is selfishness?
donor of a social behavior experiences increased fitness;
recipient experiences decreased fitness (e.g., competition for food).
What is spitefulness?
social interaction reduces
fitness of both donor and recipient (not
favored by natural selection).
What is altruism?
increases recipient fitness and
decreases fitness of the donor.
Why does kin selection favor altruistic behaviors?
When an individual’s behavior benefits a sibling or other close relative, it is increasing the fitness of an individual that shares many of its genes. This indirectly increases the fitness
the donor
What is indirect fitness?
fitness you gain by helping a relative pass on to its offspring copies of
genes that the relative shared with you.
What is inclusive fitness?
the sum of direct and indirect Fitness
What is the coefficient of relationship?
The probability that two relatives share
copies of the same genes from a common
ancestor (probability of identity by descent)
What is the J. B. S. Haldane quote and what does it mean?
“I would jump into a river and risk my life to save two brothers, but not one. I would jump in to save
eight cousins, but not seven”, this is the amount the the coefficient of relationship makes it reasonable to risk yourself.
When will an altruistic behavior be favored?
An altruistic behavior will be favored if
the indirect fitness benefit exceeds the
direct fitness cost
What filters does a species have to go through to occupy a site?
Dispersal, environmental, and biotic
What is a dispersal limitation?
a factor that prevents an organism from
arriving at a new location.
What is a fundamental niche?
range of
environmental conditions under which
a species can persist
What is a realized niche?
– actual range
of environmental conditions
utilized by a species when other
species (competitors, predators,
parasites) are present
What is competitive displacement?
– the process by which natural selection
drives competing species into different patterns of resource
use.
What is niche partitioning?
an evolutionary process occurring over
multiple generations, in contrast with competitive
displacement, which may occur within the time frame of a
single generation
What is a fire regime?
the frequency,
season, intensity, type, and area coveredthat
is most commonly experienced within an
ecosystem.
What are serotinous cones and fruits?
woody structures that store
seeds on the mother plant for
several years and release them
when exposed to the heat of
fire
What is the fire trap?
repeated
cycles of topkill and resprouting that keeps them in a
suppressed state
How is λ calculated?
𝜆=N1/N0
How do you predict population growth using λ?
Nt=N0*λ^t
How do you convert between r and λ?
r=ln(λ) and λ=e^r
What is the formula for doubling time? (td)
td= (ln(2))/r
What is the logistic growth equation?
dN/dt=rN(1-(N/K))
What is the Allee effect?
for a very small population there is a positive correlation between population size and the per capita population growth rate. aka the smaller the population the lower the birth rate and higher the death rate
