Test 2 Flashcards
Carbs, Lipids, Vitamins, Minerals, and More
Carbohydrate
- consists of carbon and water
- composed of single sugars, alone, or in various combinations
Mono
1
Di
2
Tri
3
Tetra
4
Penta
5
Hexa
6
Hepta
7
Octa
8
Nona
9
Deca
10
Undeca
11
Dodeca
12
Trideca
13
Tetradeca
14
Pentadeca
15
Hexadeca
16
Heptadeca
17
Octadeca
18
Nonadeca
19
Eicosa
20
Heneicosa
21
Docosa
22
Tetracosa
24
Oligo
Few
Poly
Many
Carbohydrates Primary Role
to provide the body with energy
Carbohydrates Targets
brain and nervous system
Why carbohydrates?
- less expensive than protein
- multiple health benefits
- High-fat diets are associated with chronic disease
Where do carbohydrates contribute to the body?
- important structural components in cell walls, membranes, and connective tissues
- principal component of nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)
- Active in immunological function (lipopolysaccharide)
Two types of carbohydrates
Simple sugars (Mono, Disaccharides) and Complex CHO
Examples of Simple Sugars
Monosaccharides
- Glucose
- Fructose
- Galactose
Disaccharides
- Sucrose
- Lactose
- Maltose
Two major forms of Complex Sugars
Starches (breads, pasta, rice, potatoes, etc.)
- stored as glycogen in the body
Fiber/Cellulose/Hemicellulose
Carbohydrates Structure
- simple sugars are the building blocks
- all carbs are composed of single sugars, alone or in various combinations
Sucrose Combination
Glucose and fructose
Lactose Combination
Glucose and galactose
Maltose Combination
Glucose and glucose
Glucose
- blood sugar
- most common carb
- AKA dextrose
- main source of energy
- most quickly absorbed
Fructose
- fruit sugar
- absorbed much slower than glucose
- predominantly absorbed in the liver - no insulin is required to be used
- generally refined from corn starch
- 15-80% sweeter than sucrose
- natural sources include: fruits, honey, sugar cane, sugar beets, and some vegetables
Sucrose
- table sugar
- single most abundant pure organic chemical in the world
- whether refined or raw, this is common sugar
3 Major Classifications of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides, and Polysaccharides
Oligosaccharides Description
short chains of monosaccharides (2-10) linked covalently by glycosidic bond
Polysaccharides Description
long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds (>10)
Alpha-delta-glucose
Hydroxyl on carbon 1 is pointing down (above the ring)
Beta-delta-glucose
Hydroxyl on carbon 1 is pointing up (below the ring)
Anomers
Alpha and Beta forms of carbohydrates
- Alpha is starch
- Beta is cellulose
Oligosaccharides Formation
when the -OH on the 1st monosaccharide reacts with the carbon atom on the 2nd monosaccharide
Raffinose
- trisaccharide
- gal - glc - fru
Stachyose
- tetrasaccharide
- gal - gal - glc - fru
- found in soy beans
Dextrins
repeating units of glucose
Carbs Dietary Recommendations
- ~50% of total calories consumed
- <10% of total calories from added sugars
- 14 grams/day
How do we get more complex carbs?
We are advised to choose plenty of whole foods like from farmers markets and fewer foods from boxes and don’t resemble their original farm-grown products
2 Types of Polysaccharides
storage and structural
Storage Saccharides
- A mixture of “glucans” that plants synthesize as their principle food reserve
- They are found in the cytoplasm of plant cells as insoluble granules composed of (1) alpha-amylose and (2) amylopectin
- starch and glycogen
Glycogen
- Energy storage polysaccharide in animals ONLY (found in the liver and muscle tissue)
- Structure resembles that of amylopectin, but it is more highly branched with branch points occurring every 8 to 12 glucose residues
Cellulose
- structural polysaccharide
- Primary structural component of plant cell walls
- > 1/2 of the carbon in the biosphere
Lipid
substances of biological origin that are soluble in organic solvents such as hexane and ether, but only sparingly soluble in H2O
Lipid Functions
- most concentrates source of food energy
- excess energy intake is stored in fat within adipose cells
- adipose tissue insulates and cushions the body and vital organs
Functions of Fat in Food
- absorbs and retains flavor
- tenderizes/shortens
- improves palatability
- delays gastric emptying and contributes to a feeling of satiety
- serves as a carrier for fat-soluble vitamins
What compounds are included in lipids?
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- sterols
- phytosterols
Sources of fat
oil, butter, margarine, and shortening
Properties of food lipids
determined by the specific fatty acids present, the number of carbon atoms present, saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, positions, configuration and orientation
Fatty Acid Classification
- Saturated
- Cis-monosaturated
- Cis-polyunsaturated
- Trans fatty acid
3 Naming Systems for Fatty Acids
- short hand notation
- trivial/common name
- IUPAC name
IUPAC
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Saturated Fatty Acid
- fatty acid carrying the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
- found in animal foods such as meat, poultry, full-fat diary products, and tropical oils
4 Carbon SFA
Butyric Acid
6 Carbon SFA
Caproic Acid
8 Carbon SFA
Caprylic Acid
10 Carbon SFA
Capric Acid
12 Carbon SFA
Lauric Acid
14 Carbon SFA
Myristic Acid
16 Carbon SFA
Palmitic Acid
18 Carbon SFA
Stearic Acid
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
- A fatty acid with 1 or more sites of unsaturation (double bonds)
- Found in foods from both plant and animal origin
- Further divided into mono fatty acids and poly fatty acids
Naming System for Unsaturated Fatty Acids
IUPAC System
- Count # of carbon atoms from the carboxylic acid end of molecule
N-System
- Count # of carbon atoms from the methyl (-CH3) or omega end
Functions of Cis-monounsaturated Fatty Acids
- Primary oleic acid
- One double bond
- Energy source
- Membrane structure
- A diet rich in MUFAs and low SFAs, markedly decreases bad cholesterol and blood triglyceride levels, while maintaining good cholesterol levels
2 Essential Fatty Acids for humans
Linoleic Acid and Alpha-linoleic AcidPO
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
- Linoleic Acid and alpha-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized
- Membrane structure fatty acids
Possesses cell signaling pathways - Diets rich in PUFAs and low in SFAs decrease LDL (bad cholesterol) and blood triglyceride levels as well as raising good cholesterol (HDL) levels
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
- Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
- Arachidonic acid
- Eicosapentaenoic (EPA)
- Docosahexaonoic (DHA)
“Complete” Hydrogenation
- Double bonds carry a slightly negative charge and readily accept positively charged hydrogen atoms, creating a saturated fatty acid
- Most often, fat is partially hydrogenated, creating a trans-fatty acid
Trans-Fatty Acids
- A type of fatty acid created when an unsaturated fat is “partially” hydrogenated with H2 gas
- They are found primarily in margarines, shortenings, commercial frying fats, and baked goods
- Trans-fatty acids have been implicated in research as culprits in heart disease
- They increase “bad” LDL-cholesterol levels as well as decrease “good” HDL-cholesterol levels
- Almost similar effects compared to ingestion of diet high in saturated fatty acids
Complex Lipids
contain other components in addition to glycerol and fatty acids
Phospholipids
Lipids which upon hydrolysis give glycerol, fatty acids, inorganic phosphate and an organic base
Vitamins
An organic (carbon containing) compound necessary for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts, and must be obtained in the diet
Provitamin
A vitamin precursor is a compound that is converted to its active form (i.e. a vitamin) through normal metabolic processes
Classification of Vitamins
Water Soluble and Fat Soluble
Water Soluble Vitamins
- Absorbed directly into the blood
- stored in the short term
- detected in the kidneys and excreted in the urine
- possibly toxic
- requires daily intake
Fat Soluble Vitamins
- absorbed in the lymph then blood
- is a protein carrier
- stored in the long term
- remains in fat storage sites , less readily excreted
- likely toxic
- requires regular intake
Vitamin A
- Eyes
- essential nutrient
- main functions include: helping vision and eyes, maintains health, promotes reproduction and growth, and immunity
- found in veggies, daily, and liver
Vitamin A Deficiency
Night blindness and embryo defects
Vitamin D
- Bones
- main functions include: bone making and maintenance, helps absorb dietary calcium, makes calcium and phosphorus available in blood
- found in sunlight, fortified milk, eggs and fish
Vitamin D Deficiency
Children = Ricket’s Disease
Adults = Osteomalacia
Low calcium absorption + low blood calcium = bone deficiency
Vitamin E
- Muscles
- main functions is an antioxidant in the body
- stored in adipose tissue
- found in oils and nuts
- widespread
Vitamin E Deficiency
- Rare
- premature fetus
- those who cannot absorb fats
Vitamin K
- Blood and Blood Cells
- Main functions include: blood clotting, synthesis of proteins involved in clotting, bone health, coagulation and regulates calcium (with V-D)
- found in green-leafy vegetables
Vitamin K Deficiency
- Rare
- Maybe if you take antibiotics
International Units (IU)
- A unit of measurement for the amount of a substance, based on measured biological activity
- It is used for vitamins, hormones, vaccines, etc.
- The precise definition of one differs from substance to substance
Vitamin C
- Skin, Bones, Infections
- helps to form collagen, enhances immune system, antioxidant
- essential nutrient
Thiamin (B1)
- Acts primarily as a coenzyme in reactions that release energy from carbohydrates
- Deficiency disease = Beriberi
Riboflavin (B2)
- It is important for body growth and red blood cell production and helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates
- Deficiency of this is not common in the US because this vitamin is plentiful in the food supply
- Symptoms of severe deficiency in 3rd world countries include: Anemia, Mouth or lip cores (causes stomatitis), Skin disorders, Sore throat, Swelling of mucus membranes
- Deficiency Disease = Ariboflavinosis
Niacin (B3)
- Part of coenzyme for energy
- Deficiency disease = Pellagra
- Can be made from the amino acid tryptophan in the body
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
- Metabolism
- assists in the balancing of sodium and potassium as well as promoting red blood cell production
- required for the production of neurotransmitters in the brain
- Dietary Sources: An excellent source of pyridoxine is dragon fruit from south east Asia; Other sources include fortified cereal, bananas, and salmon
Biotin
- Can be synthesized by bacteria, yeasts, molds, algae, and some plant species
- Biotin is found in many foods, but generally in lower amounts than other B vitamins
- found in Egg yolk, liver, and yeastF
Folate/Folic Acid
- helps women with pregnancies and has shown to help decrease neural tube defects
- found in food and supplements (but much more available in supplements)
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
- For healthy blood cells and nerve cells and metabolism
- Good sources include: Clams, Mussels, Crabs, Salmon
- Deficiency Disease = Pernicious Anemia
Choline
- Everyone needs to get enough choline in their diets to stay healthy
- The nutrient is especially critical during pregnancy and breastfeeding
- The nutrient may also help with cognitive function during fetal and infant brain development
Toxicity of B Vitamins
Niacin = Nausea, headaches, cramps, ulcer
Vitamin B6 = Depression, fatigue, headaches, nerve damage, waking problems
Folic Acid = diarrhea, insomnia, irritability
Thiamin Deficiency
Beriberi
- Symptoms: Muscle Wasting, Nerve Damage
- Good Sources: Pork, Soy (legumes), Whole Grain
Niacin Deficiency
Pellagra
- Symptoms (4D’s): Diarrhea, Dermatitis, Dementia, Death
- Good Sources: Protein, Milk, Fish, Chicken, Whole Grains
Vitamin C Deficiency
Scurvy
- Symptoms: Bleeding Gums, Hemorrhages, Open Wounds, Loose Teeth
- Good Sources: Fruits and Vegetables
Minerals
- Small Quantities, naturally-occurring, inorganic, chemical-‘elements’
- Serve as structural components and function in many vital processes in the body
Major Minerals
- Calcium (Ca)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Phosphorus (P)
- Sodium (Na)
- Potassium (K)
- Chloride (Cl)
- Sulfur (S)
Trace Minerals
- Iron (Fe)
- Zinc (Zn)
- Copper (Cu)
- Fluoride (F)
- Selenium (Se)
- Iodine (I)
- Chromium (Cr)
- Manganese (Mn)
- Molybdenum (Mo)
Minerals used for Bone Health
- Calcium
- Magnesium
- Phosphorus
- Fluoride
Minerals used for Blood Health
- Iron
- Zinc
- Copper
Minerals used for Energy Metabolism
- Sulfur
- Iodine
- Chromium
Minerals used for Antioxidant
Selenium
Which minerals are used to make up bones?
Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium
Osteoporosis
- A chronic disease that makes a person’s bones weak and more likely to break
- ~ 10 million Americans have this and another 44 million have low bone density, placing them at increased risk
- Direct care costs for fractures alone are already up to $19 billion annually
Osteoporosis Prevention
- A balanced diet rich in Calcium
- Exercise
- No smoking or excessive alcohol intake
- Bone density testing and medication when needed
Calcium Sources
- Dairy (Milk, Cheese, Yogurt)
- Dark green vegetables (Broccoli, Kale)
- Orange Juice
- Salmon
- Sardines with bones
Iron Deficiency
Anemia
- fatigue
- headaches
- shortness of breath
Iron
- Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells
- Helps transport O2
- Sources: Canned Clams, Cereal, white beans, lentils, spinach, beef liver, chick peas, beef, mushrooms (all cooked, boiled, fried, etc.)
Iodine
- Supports energy regulation
- Critical for synthesis of our thyroid hormone
- Supports reproduction and growth
- is present in very few foods
Iodine Deficiency/Excessive Intake
Goiter - enlargement of the thyroid gland
Selenium
- Works in combination with Vitamin E
- For thyroid function, protection from toxins and free radicals, and enhances immunity
- Found mainly in brazil nuts
