Test 2 Flashcards
Motivation
A need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour
Instinct
A complex behaviour that is rigidtly patterned theoughout a species and is unlearned
Physiological needs
A basic bodily requirement
Food, water
Drive-reduction theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
Incentives
A positive or negative emvironmental stimulus that motivates behaviour
Yerkes-Dodson law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
(Moderate best)
Hierachy of needs
Maslows pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satusfied before people can fulfill their higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs.
Hisrachy of needs steps
Self transcendence: need to find meaning
Self actualization: live up to potential
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
Safety needs: shelter
Psyiological needs: food, water
Glucose
The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When low we feel hunger
Set point
The point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
Basal metabolic rate
The bodys resting rate of energy input
Asexual
Having no sexual attraction toward others
Testosterone
Most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates fhe growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
Estrogens
Sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels pwak during ovulation.
Sexual response cycle
The four stages of sexual responding described by masters and johnson-excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
Refractory period
In human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.
Sexual dysfunction
A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning at any point in the sexual cycle
Erectile dysfunction
Inability to develop or maintain an erecrion due to insufficient blood flow to the penis
Female orgasmic disorder
Distress due to freqeuntly or never experiencing orgasm
Paraphilias
Sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviour or urgers involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and or nonconsenting persons
Sexual orientation
The direction of our sexual attractions, as reflected in our longings and fantasies
AIDS
Aquited Immunodeficiency syndrome
Affiliation need
The need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group
Self-determination theory
The theory we feel motivated to satusfy our needs for xompetence, autonomy, and relatedness
Ostracism
Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or group
Narcissism
Excessive self-love and self-absorption
Achievement morivation
A desire for significant accomplishment, dor mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard
GRIT
In psychology, a passion and perserverence in the pursuit of ling term goals
Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid a threated punishment
Extrinsic motivation
The desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid threated punishments
Emotions
A response of the whole organism, involving 1. Physiological arousal 2. Expressive behaviours and most importantly 3. Conscious experience resulting from ones interpretations
James-Lange Theory
The theory that our experiences of emotion occurs when we become aware of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus
(Emotions arise from the perception of body changes)
- recognize a threat
- React by feeling fearful
- Activates sympathetic nervous system to cause
- Fearful behaviour
Cannon-Bard Theory
The theory that an emption-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1. Physiolgical responses and 2. The subjectice experience of emotion
Two factor theory
The Schachler-Singee theory that to experience emotion one must 1. Be physically aroused and 2. Cognitively label the arousal
Emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cofnitive label that we apply to explain arousal
Polygraph
A machine used in attempts to detect lies, measures emption-linked changes in perspiration, heart rate and breathing (are arousal detectors)
-falsely accuse 1/3 of time
Physically abused children are more likely to perceive
Anger
Introvert are better at
Extraverts are better at
Reading others emotions
Easier to read
Facial feedback effect
The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings, such as fear, anger, or happiness
Behaviour feedback effect
The tendency of behaviour to influence our own and others thoughts, feelings and actions
Catharsis
The idea of releasing aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
-Better ways to deal with anger: wait, find healthy distraction or support, distance yourself
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
Peoples tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.
Positive psychology
Scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help indoviduals and communities to thrive
Subjective well-being
Sled perceived happinesss or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of onjective well-being to evaluate peoples quality of life.
Adaption level phenomenon
Our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, of lights or income), relative to a neutral level defined by out prior experience
Relative deprivation
The perception that we are worse off delative to those with whok we compare ourselves
Stress
The process by which we perceive and respons to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challening
3 types of stressors
Catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassels and social stress
Approach and avoidance motives
The drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus
General adaption syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in 3 phases: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Tend-one-befriend respponse
Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others
Health psychology
A subfield of psychology that provides psychologys contribution to behavioural medicine
Psychoneuroimmunology
Studies the interconnections among psychological processes, nervous system and immune system.
- CNS and immune system are directly linked via the sympathetic nervous system
- surface of lymphocytes contain receptor sites for neurotransmitters and hormones like catecholamines and cortisol
- lymphocytes produce neurotransmitters and hormones
-stress can quicken disease and make you vulnerable to colds
Coronary heart disease
Clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle, a leading cause of death in developed countries
Type A
Competitive, hardworking, driven, impatient, verbally aggressive and anger prone people
Type B
Easy going, relaxed people
David Wechsler and the Wechsler intelligence scales
- Developed for adults: dissatisfaction with standard-Binet Intelligence scales led to the development of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Its several components include a verbal score and a performance score
- Developed for Children: Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC) and the Wechselr preschool and primary scale of intelligence (WPPSI)
Examples of wechsler test components
- Verbal comprehenion
- Block design
- Matching related object
- Working memory of numbers
- Perceptual speed items
What makes a good test
Standardization: administer test to large sample under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms
Reliability: ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions
Validity: ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
Heritability and environmental contributions to intelligence
Heritability:
- differences among individuals
- 50% heritable estimate in geneal pop
Enbironment:
-degree to which variation is due to environment
Identical twins and inteligence
Any differences between them is attributed to envrionmental factors rather than hereditary differences
Adoptive children and intelligence
Any dissimilarities between them are largely attributed to heredity differences
Imporvement in average ____ scores has occurred in several cultures and countries during the past feew generations
IQ
Attributed to environment
Sterotype threat
Occurs when members of a group are aware of negatice stereotype about them.
Ex: women perform poorly in math, especialy advanced math
Sterotype lift
Occurs when awareness of a positive expectation improves task performance
-asians are good at advanced math
Average IQ scores of children from different racial and ethnic froups do differ however;
- These are explained in part by differences in social-class backgrounds
- Group differences in IQ scores refer to statistical averages rather than to any individual’s score
- Differences only in the environments in which the children live
Minority groups may before poorly on tests not because of lower IQ, but because
Of unfamiliarity with the white, middle-class culture
Characteristics of language
3 basic universal components:
- phonemes (sounds)
- morphemes (ask,ed)
- syntax
Generativity
Language is creative, or generative; it can generate an infinite number of new and sifferent phrases and sentences
Imitation theory
Repeatinf and memorizing language from our parents (models). Greater exposure to language might speed up the language acquisition
Innateness theory
Every child is born with a predisposition to learn any language
-infants can distinguish among the speech sounds of all the world languages.
Universal grammar
A basic understanding of the common principles of language organization
Distributional properties
Certain sounds are more likely to appear together than are others
The stages of language development
- babbling: at about 5 months: add consonants to the bowels and string the sounds-ba-ba-ba-ba,de-de-de-de
- one wors stage: around 12 months
- two word stage: around 2 years
- language spurt: around 21/2 were vocabulary and grammar grow
On average, american children say their first word around what age
13 months
Infants produce simple sentences at what age
24 months
Comprehension vocabulary
The words that are understood by an infant or child
Production vocabulary
The words that an infant or child understands and can speak
Infants acquire comphrension of words more than twice as fast as they learn to ____
Speak new words
Early word recognition
Is rapid!!!
- infants know more words than theh can produce; they understand more words than realized by caregivers
- proved by eye tracking research
15 months: recognized the word only when they had heard the whole word
24 months: recognized the word after hearing only the first part of the word, even with incorrect prounciation
Sensitive period and example
A span of an organisms life when it can gain a new skill relatively easily
- after this becomes more difficult
- evident across different species
- applies to langauge
Genie rasied alone and in silence till 13 could not be taught to speak in sentences. Could do some words only
Why is a second language so hard to learn
- senstivie periods for a second language
- brain matured
- memory and mental capacities
- lack of envrionment to speak the second langauge
- languages are so different (alphabetic vs. Morphological)
Early bilinguals
Late bilinguals
Learning two langauges at one time in early age (before age of 12)
Learning two labguages sequentially, usually the second language after adolescence
People with 2+ native langauges have what type of brain?
Common brain area for langauges whereas others who learned secnd language have two seperate language areas
Damage to which brain areas can cause language issues?
Brocas aphasia: long pauses and few words
wernickes areas (fluent aphasia): quick speaking but no sense
Social Psychology
Branch of psychology that studies how thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical envrionment
Social influence
Focuses on how our behaviour is affected by other people and by situational factors
Social cognition
The mental processes people use to make sense of their social environments
Conformity
Adjusting opinions, judgement, or behaviour so that it matches that of othwr people or the norms of a social group or situation
Normative social influence
Subjects desired to be liked and accepted by the group
Informational social influence
Sunjects reported having doubted their own perceptual abilities, which led to their conformance
Solomon Asch’s experiment
- all but on in the group was confederate
- seating was arranged
- asked to rate which line matched a standard line
- confederates were instructed to pick the wrong line 12 of 18 times
Results:
- 76% of participants conformed to at least one wrong choice
- subjects gave wrong answer (conformed) 37% of the critical trials
- 2/3 of trials, participants stuck to their guns
Factors that promote conformity
- facing unanimous group of at least 4-5
- must give repsonse in front of the group
- have already expressed commutment to a different idea or opinion
- find the task difficult
- doubt your abilities or knowledge
- strongly attracted to the group and want to be a member
What culture is conformity more popular in
Collectivistic Cultures
Individualistic culture
Tend to emphasize independence and conformity carries negative association
Collectivistic culture
- publicialy challenging the judgements of others, particularly the judgement of members of one’s in group, would be considered rude
- conformity doesnt not carry negative connotation
Milgram experiment predictions
- all people predicted that subjects (teachers) would refuse to obey at some point
- predicted that most subjects would refuse at 150 volts when learners first protested
- predicted that only a few rare individuals would go as far as the 300 volt level
- no one would go to 450 volts
Milgram experiment results
- 2/3 fully compliant and went to 450V
- not one person stopped before 300V
- no gender difference
- has been replicated
When the teachers in the milgram experiment were allowed to act as their own authority what happened
95% never went above 150V
When were people more likely to defy an authority
When they saw others do it
Bystander effect
A phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress
Diffusion of responsibility
A phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any indovidual will help someone on distress
Two reasons for bystander effect
Diffusion of responsibilty
Motivation to behave in a socially acceptable way (normative social influence) and to appear correct (informational social influence)
Emotion
Complex psychological state that involves subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response
Early view vs current view of emotion
Emotions are disruptive forces that interfere with rational behaviour
- Emotions move us to act, set goals and make rational decisions
- people who have lost the capacity to feel emotion because of damage to the brain tend to make horrible decisions
Who wrote the book expression of emotion in man and animals and described that emotioks reflect evolutionary adaptations to the problems of survival and reproduction
Charles darwin
Evidence supporting James-Lange theory of emotion
- PET scan brain patterns
- people more sensitive to their own body signals were more likely to experience anxiety and negative emotions
- expressing a soecific emotion, especially facially, causes us to subjectively experience that emotion (FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS)
Facial feedback hypothesis example
Smiling makes yoy feel happy (pen between teeth=found article funnier)
Frowning makes you feel sad (pencil held in lip=found article duller)
Critiques of James-Lange theory
- body reactions are similar for many emotions, yet our subjective experience of various emotions is very different
- our emotional reaction to a stimulus is often faster than our physiological reaction
- artifically inducing physiologcal changes does not necessarily produce a related emotional experience
Modern two factor theory experiment (Dutton and Aron)
- scary bridge vs. Safe bridge
- attractive female approaches man and interviews him and gave him her number abd offered to explain results on a later date
- misattributed bodily arousal as attraction to the interviewer not the scary bridhe
Are facial expressions universal?
- Ekman and collegues
- found similarity across industrialized countries and tested remote nations as well and found very similar reactions
6 common expressions
Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Surprise
Physical signs of pride by all nations
Smile
Raised arms
Expanded chest
Arms extending away
People watched highly stressful films and were onserved alone or with an older experimenter sitting beside… what happened
Alone: american and Japanese made simialr expressions
With older person: japanese tend to conceal their expression either by muting it or attempting to cover it with a hand
Ritualized display
Existence of cultural rules lead people to express distinctive facial expressions
Voluntarily, not reflexive
Paul Ekman’s micro expressions
- deception associated with a variety of nonverbal cues
- fleeting facial expressions, vocal, cues and nervous body movements
- micro expressions last 1/25 of a second
Emotiona are associated with distinct patterns of responses by the
Sympathetic nervous system and the brain
Fear and anger in a heat chart
Fear: decrease skin temp (cold feet)
Anger: increase in skin temp (hot under the collar)
Polygraph tests
-dont detect lies, detects physiological changes associated eith emotions based on the assumption that lying is accompanied by anxiety, fear and stress
Issues:
- no pattern for lying
- some can lie withiut anxiety
- innocent people may be anxious
- interpretations can be subjective
Amygdala in rats and humans
Activates when seeing threatening or fearful faces or when hearinf sounds related to fear
Rats:when damaged cannot be clasically confirioned to acquire a fear response
Humans:when damaged have “psychic blindness” which is an inability to recognize fear in facial expressions and voice
Activating amygdala pathway
Two pathways:
- indirect is the cortex
- direct is bypassing cortex to amygdala first
What happened what a teacher was given a random list of students who were supposedly gifted?
Those students scored higher at end of the year
Kanzi the ape
Memorized huge amount of words associated with buttons but could not make sentences (no syntax)
Abu Ghraib prision
Abused prisions suspected of being terrorists (not confirmed) and were tortured to get info
- stripped
- assulted
- same song over and over with loud speaker
- no food or water
Soloman Asches experiment showed what type of social influence
Both
Normative and informational
Standford Prision experiment (Philip Zimbardo)
- 24 people, 12 guards, 12 prisoners
- guards awkward at first but got into role and acted cruel
- prisoners protest to challenge authority and so guards had to change
- guards increased harassment and the wardens didnt stop them so they kept going
- put prisoners in solitary confinement, stripped them and verbally abused them
- only lasted 6 days as prisoners broke and left
What was avergae time people stayed in the hotel focus group fire experiment
13 minutes!!!!!
- waited for someone else to move first
- if alone, left imemdiately
Monkey fairness experiment
2 monkeys in clear cages beside eachother. Both perform a task to get a prize. One given grapes, one given rocks. Rocks gets jealous and throws rock and reaches for grapes
Monkeys can us erstand fairness and frustration
People with botox often feel less…
Happy… facial feedback hypothesis
Intellectual disability
A condition in which individuals have an IQ of 70 or lower
-difficulties functioning in conceptual skills such as language and the ability to hnderstand time, social skills and practical skills such as taking care of personal hygiene and health
Intellectual giftedness
A condition in which individuals have an IQ of 130 or higher
- possess exceptional abilities in areas related to intelligence, language and mathematics
- high functioning
Stress
Negative emotional state occuring in reaponse to events that are perceived ad taxing or exceeding a persons resources or ability to cope
Cognitive appraisal model of stress
Developed by richard Lazarus
-model of stress that emphasizes the role of an individuals evalutation (appraisal) of events and situations, and the resources that he or she has available to deal with the event or situation
According to Richard Lazarus, events are not _____ in and of themselves
Stressful
- stress is determined by your subjective response to external events or circumstances
- if you believe you have the resource necessary to meet a challenge, youll experience little or no stress
If our coping efforts are successful, stress will _____
If unsuccessful, stress will ____
Decrease
Increase
Health Psychology
Branch of Psychology that studies how biological, behavioural and social factors influence health, illness, medical treatment, and health-related behavious
Biopsychosocial model
Beleif that physical health and illness are determined by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, abd social factors
Stressors
Events or situations that are perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging
Early stress researchers
Holmes and Rahe
- belieived any change that required you to adjust your behaviour and lifestyle would cause stress
- developed the SRRS
SRRS
Social readjustment rating scale
On the SRRS scale waht are the highest and lowest life events
Highest life change=death of spouse
Lowest life change=minor violation of law
Traumatic events
Events or situations that are negative, severe, and far beyond our normal expectations for everyday life or life events
PTSD
Posttraumatic stress disorder
When traumas are intense or repeated, some psychologically vulnerable people may develop it
10%
High and low levels of cumulative adversity were associated with
Poor health outcomes
Experiencing some stress was healthier than experiencing
No stress at all
People who have had to cope with a moderate level of adversity devleop
Resilience
Daily hassels
Everyday minor events that annoy and upset people and might be an important form of stress
Ex: concern over weight, concern over health of family memebr, not enough money, too much to do, traffic
Number of daily hassels experiences is a better predictir of___________
Physical illness and symptoms than is the number of major life events experiences
Women are more likely to report daily stressors that are associated with____ while men____
Friends and family
School or work
Acculturative daily hassels for children examples
- it bothers me when people force me to be like everyone else
- i dont feel at home here
- im not shy, i just dont speak english well
Acculturative stress
Results from the pressure of adapting to a new culture
Two questions people face when wntering a new culture
- Should i seek positive relations with the sominant society?
- Is my original cultural identity of value to me, should i try and maintain it?
Four possible patterns of acculturation and its stress leves
Integration=low stress
Assimilation=medium stress
Separation=high stress
Marginalization=greatest stress
Stress affects phsycial health through its effect on _____
The endocrine system, the immune system and the chromosomes
Acute stress enocrine pathway
Hypothalamus
Sympathetic nervous system
Addenal medulla
Secretions of catecholamines
- increase respiration
- increase heart rate
- increase blood pressure
- increase blood flow to muscles
- digestion inhibited
- pupils dialate
Prolonged stress endocrine pathway
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
ACTH release
Adrenal cortex
Secretion of Corticosteroids
- increase release of stored energy
- reduce inflamation
- reduce immune system response
Endocrine response
Theeat perceived (amygdala), hypothalamus and lower brain structures activate sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete hormones called catecholamines
Catecholamines
Secreted by adrenal medulla
Cause rapid physiological arousal
Include adrenaline and noradrenaline
Trugger rapid and intense bodily changes associated with flight or fight response
Last 20-60 minutes
Extreme exposure on rats by Hans Selye
- adrenal galnfs become enlarged
- stomach ulcers and loss of weight
- thymus and lymph glands and immune system components shrank
Whort term stress reduces_______ and enhances _______; long term stress______
Inflammation
Muscles
Weakens immune system
Corticosteroids
Hormones released by the adrenal cortex
-play a ley tole in the bodys long term stressors
General adaptation syndrome
Hans Selye’s term for the 3-stage progression of physical changes that occyr when an organism is exposed to intense and prolonged stress
Alarm
Resistence
Exhaustion
Devastating effecrs of prolonged stress develop in 3 progressive stages:
Alarm
- intense arousal
- mobilization of physical resources (catecholamines)
- arousal remains above normal
Resistance
-body actively tries to resist or adjust to the continuing stress
Exhaustion:
- physcial exhaustion and physical disorders
- alarm symptoms reappear and are irreversible
- energy reserves depleted and adaptation begins to break down, leading to death
Telomeres
Repeated, duplicate DNA sequences that are found at the very tips of chromosomes
- protect genetic data from being broken or scrambled dueing division
- with each division, telomeres get shorter
- shorter telomeres linked to age and mortality
- elevated levels of stress hormones cortisol and catecholines linked to shorter telomeres
Immune system
Produced specialized white blood cells that protect body from viruses, bacteria and tumor cells
Lymphocytes
Specialized white blood cells that fight bacteria, buruses and other foreign invaders
Highly stressful events and common stresses are associated with
Reduced immune system functioning
- end of relationship
- caring for sick family member
- marital arguments
- exam pressure
Who demonstrated that peoppe experiencing high stress levels are more susceptible to the cold virus?
Cohen
Subjects experiencing chronic stressors are more likely to devleop a cold after exposure (corticosteroid secretions)
Short term stress may enhance the
Immune system
