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skills for evidence based practice > test 2 > Flashcards

test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are the four main sources of topics?

A
  • theory
  • personal experience
  • replication
  • literature and previous studies
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2
Q

what is a theory?

A

organised body of concepts/generalisation/principles subjected to investigation

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3
Q

what are three problems with broad topics?

A
  • enlarges scope beyond reason
  • complicates organisation of review
  • too general, difficult to carry out/interpret
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4
Q

what are some suggestions that can narrow topics?

A

talking to experts and read secondary sources that provide overviews

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5
Q

how do quant and qual studies differ when the topic is narrowed?

A

quant tend to narrow topic initially and qual narrow throughout

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6
Q

what are some factors that make a topic researchable?

A
  • can be investigated throughout collection and analysis of data
  • theoretical or practical
  • contribute to educational process
  • ethical
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7
Q

what are some factors that make a topic non-researchable?

A

-matters of opinion

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8
Q

what does a formal statement of quant research topic involve?

A
  • identifies variable of interest
  • describes specific relationship between variables
  • identifies nature of participants
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9
Q

what are some functions of a literature review?

A
  • determine what has been done
  • provide insight to develop framework into which topic fits
  • identifies useful methodological strategies
  • facilitates interpretation of results
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10
Q

what is a literature review?

A

involves systemic identification, location and analysis of documents containing info related to research problem for question

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11
Q

what are some general recommendations for the scope of a literature review?

A
  • bigger isn’t better
  • heavily researched topics provide references to focus only o major studies
  • lesser researcher require reviewing any study related in meaningful way
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12
Q

what are the four stages when conducting a lit review?

A
  • identify keywords
  • identify sources
  • abstracting info founding references
  • analysing, organising, and reporting lit
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13
Q

what are the seven steps of locating, reviewing, summarising, and classifying references in lit reviews?

A
  • read abstract
  • skim article
  • record complete bibliographic info
  • classify/code article
  • summarise
  • identify thoughts about what is important
  • indicate direct quotes properly
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14
Q

what are the characteristics of sources in lit reviews?

A
  • primary and secondary

- empirical and opinion

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15
Q

what are the two characteristics of meta-analysis?

A
  • review as inclusive as possible

- results of each study are translated into stat called effect size

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16
Q

what is an effect size in a meta-analysis?

A

difference between means for experimental and control in CG standard deviation units

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17
Q

what does the average of all effect sizes summarising in meta-analysis?

A

summarises overall effect of studies

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18
Q

what is an inductive view of hypotheses?

A

generalisation made from number of observations (qual)

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19
Q

what is a deductive view of hypotheses?

A

derived from theory aim at providing evidence to support/expand/contradict (quant)

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20
Q

what is a good hypothesis?

A
  • based on reasoning
  • provides reasonable explanation for predicted outcome
  • clearly states expected relationships between variables
  • testable
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21
Q

what is a non-directional type of quant hypothesis?

A

statement that no relationship or difference exists between variables

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22
Q

what is a directional type of quant hypothesis?

A

statement of expected direction of relationship/difference between variables

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23
Q

what is a null type of quant hypothesis?

A

stat statement that no statistically significant relationship/difference exists between variables

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24
Q

how are hypothesis tested?

A
  • stat analysis of data
  • importance of results regardless of outcome
  • results support or fail to support hypotheses, never disprove or prove
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25
Q

what does writing a lit review involve?

A
  • report primarily on original sources of scholarship
  • gives justification
  • provide background
  • describes, summarises, evaluates, compares and integrates content of primary reports
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26
Q

what are some reasons for lit reviews?

A
  • identify gaps
  • avoid repeating mistakes
  • build on other’s work
  • increase breadth of knowledge
  • identify people in same field
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27
Q

what is a systemic review?

A

lit review focused on single question which tries to identify, appraise, and synthesise high quality evidence relevant to question

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28
Q

what is a meta-analysis?

A

statistical technique often used in systemic reviews enabling results from no.of quant studies combined into common metric to determine average effect of technique

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29
Q

what is an integrative review?

A

lit review that attempts to combine experimental and non-experimental studies

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30
Q

what can integrative reviews be used for?

A

review theories, evidence, or to analyse methodological issues

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31
Q

what is a qualitative review?

A

methods for combining qual studies, techniques include meta-synthesis, formal grounded theory and meta-ethnography

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32
Q

why do we use systemic reviews?

A
  • minimise impact of bias/errors
  • end confusion
  • highlight findings from different studies
  • can mitigate need for further trials
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33
Q

what is the significance of systemic reviews?

A

large amount of medical lit requires clinicians/researcher are likely to rely on one systemic review to make informed decisions

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34
Q

why are systemic reviews necessary?

A

volume of material makes it impractical for clinician to remain up to date

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35
Q

what are the benefits of systemic reviews?

A
  • detect small but significant treatment effects
  • save time/money
  • clear method and results
  • define boundary of what is known and not
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36
Q

who can undertake systemic reviews?

A
  • cochrane/campbell collabs
  • regulatory bodies
  • academics
  • health tech assessment
  • multidisciplinary teams
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37
Q

what are some key characteristics of systemic reviews?

A
  • clearly stated title/objective
  • explicit criteria for inclusion/exclusion
  • presentation of characteristics of each study and analysis of method quality
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38
Q

what are some steps in the process of conducting a systemic review?

A
  • define review questions
  • develop protocol
  • identify relevant studies
  • assess eligibility
  • extract data
  • critically appraise
  • synthesise
  • disseminate
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39
Q

what will a well-formulated review question encompass?

A
  • search strategy
  • inclusion/exclusion
  • data extraction
  • choice of synthesis method
  • presentation/dissemination of findings
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40
Q

what are some challenges to lit search?

A
  • database bias
  • publication bias
  • english language bias
  • citation bias
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41
Q

when does citation bias occur?

A

when studies with significant or positive results are referenced on other republications, compared with studies with inconclusive or neg findings

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42
Q

what are the three broad categories of critical appraisal of qual studies?

A
  • rigour: thorough and appropriate approach been applied to key methods
  • credibility
  • relevance
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43
Q

what are some methods for quant data synthesis?

A

meta-analysis and narrative synthesis

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44
Q

what are some methods for qual data synthesis?

A

methods depending on review purposes eg. meta-ethnography, thematic synthesis

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45
Q

what is a meta-analysis?

A

set of stat techniques for combining results from independent but similar to derive an overall estimate of treatments effect

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46
Q

what are some potential issues of meta-analysis?

A

publication bias and varying quality of studies

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47
Q

what are the two statistical models of analysing data used?

A

fixed and random effects

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48
Q

what is the fixed effect as a stat model to analyse data?

A

assumes that true effect of treatment is the same for every study

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49
Q

what is the random effect as a stat model to analyse data?

A

assumes that true effect estimate for each study vary

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50
Q

what are integrative reviews?

A

provide review of available lit according too clear methodological approach

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51
Q

what are some potential sources of bias for integrative reviews?

A
  • incomplete lit search strategy
  • errors in data extraction
  • inappropriate data analysis
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52
Q

what are some lit search issues in integrative reviews?

A
  • obtaining needed lit often challenging
  • publication bias
  • identify max no.of primary sources through multiple strategies
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53
Q

what are some data evaluation issues in integrative reviews?

A
  • explicit assessment of study quality

- how to define quality of non-empirical studies

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54
Q

what are some major types of qualitative research?

A
  • participant observation
  • interview
  • record review
  • focus groups
  • case studies
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55
Q

what are some stages of qual evidence synthesis?

A
  • formulate questions
  • conduct systemic lit search
  • screen/select appropriate research articles
  • analysing findings
  • maintaining quality control
  • present findings
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56
Q

what are some underlying assumptions of qual research?

A
  • expect more from meta-synthesis than single
  • findings that make-up a MS database have already bee saturated
  • redundant saturation of exisiting findings
  • priority is to synthesise more info
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57
Q

what is the relationship of stats to clinical practice?

A
  • hypothesis generated
  • research plan devised of study effects of treatment method
  • quantifiable data collected
  • results interpreted
  • conclusions drawn/shared
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58
Q

what is the null hypothesis?

A

statement of no difference between/among participants

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59
Q

what is the alternate hypothesis?

A

statement that there is a definite difference among participants

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60
Q

what is statistical analysis concerned with?

A

organisation/interpretation of data according to well defined, systemic procedures

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61
Q

what are the 4 levels of stat analysis?

A
  • descriptive
  • inferential
  • associational
  • difference
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62
Q

what is descriptive stats as a level of analysis?

A

data reduction, reduces large sets into interpretable forms

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63
Q

what is inferential stats as a level of analysis?

A

inference to known population from findings in sample

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64
Q

what is associational stats as a level of analysis?

A

causality refers to set of procedures to identify relationships between multiple variables

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65
Q

what is the difference as a level of analysis?

A

determining the difference between two groups or sets of data.

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66
Q

what are some types of descriptive stats?

A
  • measures of central tendency
  • measures of variability
  • bar graphs
  • histograms
  • bivariate descriptive stats
  • scatter diagrams
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67
Q

what are some measures of central tendency?

A

mode, median and mean

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68
Q

what are measures of variability?

A
  • range
  • interquartile range
  • sum of squares
  • variance
  • standard deviation
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69
Q

what are bivariate descriptive stat types?

A

contingency tables and correlational analysis

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70
Q

what does the frequency distribution reflect?

A

simple count of how frequently each value of a variable occurs in a set of measured objects

71
Q

what are some types of distributions of frequencies?

A
  • normal
  • non symmetrical
  • kurtosis
72
Q

what is a normal distribution type of frequency?

A

both halves are identical

73
Q

what is a non-symmetrical type of frequency?

A

either positive or negatively skewed (positive curve high on left)

74
Q

what is kurtosis as a type of frequency?

A

characterised by shape, flatness= platykurtic, peakness= leptokurtic

75
Q

what do the measures of central tendency provide info about?

A

most typical or representative scores in group

76
Q

what is mode?

A

value that occurs most frequently

77
Q

what is median?

A

midpoint

78
Q

what is mean?

A

average

79
Q

what is the interquartile range?

A

refers to range of middle 50% of participants

80
Q

how is the sum of squares calculated?

A

by squaring differences each score and the mean, larger the SS the greater the variance

81
Q

what is the standard deviation?

A

dispersion method, indicates average deviation of scores around mean

82
Q

what is bivariate stats?

A

looking for relationships among two or more variables

83
Q

what are contingency tables?

A

two dimensional frequency distribution that is used with categorical (nominal) data

84
Q

what does correlational analysis determine?

A

relationship among variables

85
Q

what are the three types of directional relationships that exist in correlational analysis?

A

positive, negative and zero correlation

86
Q

what is the level of significance?

A

statement of the expected degree of accuracy of findings based on the sample size and on convention in literature

87
Q

what does the level of significance help to ensure?

A

ensure stats relationship is not caused by chance

88
Q

what does inferential stats provide action processes for?

A

drawing conclusions abut pop based on data from sample obtained

89
Q

what is stat inference based on?

A

probability theory

90
Q

what does a selection of a significance level indicate for a researcher?

A

indicates how confident they are that findings aren’t attributed to chance

91
Q

what are type one errors in stat inference?

A

errors by failing to accept null hypothesis when true

92
Q

what are type two errors in stat inference?

A

occurs in null hypothesis is mistakenly accepted when it should be rejected

93
Q

what are the three assumptions of mathematical formulas that test the hypothesis of parametric stats?

A
  • sample derived from pop with normal distribution
  • variance is homogeneous
  • data is measured at interval level
94
Q

what is homogeneous as an assumption of parametric stats?

A

is displaying scores in one group having approx. the same degree of variance as the scores in another group

95
Q

what are the three frequently used parametric stats?

A
  • t-test
  • one-way analysis of variance
  • multiple comparison
96
Q

what is t-test as a parametric stat?

A

compares two sample means on one variable

97
Q

what are the two types of t-tests as a parametric stat?

A

one type for independence or uncorrelated data other for dependent or correlated

98
Q

what is the one-way analysis of variance as a parametric stat?

A

designed to compare sample group mean to determine whether the difference can be inferred in pop, can manage two or more groups

99
Q

what does the Pearson correlation coefficient measure?

A

strength and direction of a linear relationship between X and Y variables

100
Q

what do nonparametric stats test?

A

tests hypotheses when they violate one or more of the assumptions for parametric procedures

101
Q

what type of data is nonparametric stats used?

A

ordinal

102
Q

what are some examples of nonparametric stats?

A
  • chi-squared test
  • mann-whitney u test
  • wilcoxin signed rank test
  • kruskal-wallis test
  • kappa
103
Q

what is chi-squared test as a parametric stat used for?

A

when data is nominal and when computing mean is not possible

104
Q

what is mann-whitney u test as a parametric stat used for?

A

tests differences between two independent groups, but is used with data that are ordinal

105
Q

what is wilcoxin signed rank test as a parametric stat used for?

A

alternative to t-test for correlated samples, at least level of ordinal

106
Q

what is kruskal-wallis test as a parametric stat used for?

A

alternative to one-way ANOVA when comparing three pr more independent groups, ordinal

107
Q

what is kappa test as a parametric stat used for?

A

determines degree of agreement between two or more judges independently ranking variable, categories are nominal

108
Q

what are some potential sources of error affecting stat significance?

A
  • hawthorne effect
  • placebo
  • honeymoon effect
  • research bias
  • test administrator bias
  • sampling error
  • systemic variance
  • error variance
109
Q

what is the hawthorne effect as a source of error?

A

attention given to subjects increases positive outcome and camouflage true effects of independent variable

110
Q

what is the placebo effect as a source of error?

A

suggestion that subjects are receiving treatment may produce positive expectations that it will be effective

111
Q

what is the honeymoon effect as a source of error?

A

short-term effect of new treatment that subjects hope will impact

112
Q

what is the research bias as a source of error?

A

researcher carrying out treatment affects results through interest in it to be effective

113
Q

what is the test administrator bias as a source of error?

A

individual administering test is aware of which subjects are in treatment group and control group

114
Q

what are the sampling errors as a source of error?

A

results are based on sample that is not representative and will cause results to be bias or skewed

115
Q

what is the systemic variance as a source of error?

A

fails to control extraneous variables that could impact results

116
Q

what is the error variance as a source of error?

A

overlooks effects of anxiety, motivation, inattention and unexpected problems

117
Q

what are the two aspects of validity?

A

internal and external

118
Q

what is internal validity in qual research?

A

procedures used measure that they were supposed to

119
Q

what is external validity in qual research?

A

results generalised beyond immediate study

120
Q

what do qual studies that address credibility include?

A
  • prolonged engagement and observation
  • data collection triangulation
  • search for neg case
  • member checking
  • use participant words
121
Q

what is transferability?

A

how researcher demonstrates that findings are applicable in other contexts

122
Q

what is confirmability?

A

ensures interpretations and findings were clearly derived from data, how conclusions were reached

123
Q

what is done to establish credibility, transferability, and dependability in qual research?

A
  • ensures findings are based on responses
  • eliminate potential bias
  • use audit trail/memos to highlight steps of analysis
124
Q

what is dependability?

A

extent that study could be repeated by researchers and findings would be consistent

125
Q

how can researchers ensure findings are dependable?

A

ensure process is logical, traceable and clearly documented

126
Q

what is an audit trail?

A

provides readers with evidence for decisions requiring rationale

127
Q

how can you maintain an audit trail?

A

keep records of raw data and keep reflexive journal

128
Q

what is reflexivity?

A

challenges researcher to explicitly examine how research agenda/assumptions, subject location, beliefs and emotions enter

129
Q

how can memo/reflexive journals be used in qual research?

A

used to record and document daily logistics, decisions and to record researchers reflection of values, interests and insight about self

130
Q

how can memo and reflexive journals be done?

A
  • field notes after interview
  • how attentive is participant?
  • summarise answers
  • what role i play?
131
Q

what is the purpose of quantitative sampling?

A

identify participants from whom to seek info

132
Q

what are some issues related to quantitative sampling?

A
  • nature
  • size
  • method of selecting
133
Q

what are the three steps of quantitative sampling?

A
  • identify pop
  • define sample size
  • select sample; define inclusion/exclusion
134
Q

what is generalisation in quantitative sampling?

A

extent to which results can be extended from the sample to pop

135
Q

what are the four techniques of selecting random samples?

A
  • random
  • stratified random
  • cluster
  • systemic
136
Q

what are some advantages of random sampling?

A
  • easy
  • high probability of achieving rep sample
  • meets assumptions of many stat procedures
137
Q

what are some disadvantages of random sampling?

A
  • identification of all members of pop can be difficult

- contacting members can be difficult

138
Q

what are some examples of stratified random samples?

A

gender, ethnicity, education level, religion

139
Q

what are proportional stratified random samples?

A

same proportion of subgroups in the samples in pop

140
Q

what are non-proportional stratified random samples?

A

different, often equal, proportions of subgroups

141
Q

what are the advantages of stratified random samples?

A
  • more precise sample
  • used for both proportional and non-proportional
  • ensures rep of subgroups in sample
142
Q

what are the disadvantages of stratified random samples?

A

identifying:

  • all members of pop can be hard
  • members of subgroup can be hard
143
Q

what is cluster sampling?

A

selecting participants using groups that have similar characteristics and in which participants ca be found

144
Q

what are clusters in cluster sampling?

A

locations within which an intact group of members of pop can be found

145
Q

what are some examples of clusters?

A
  • neighbourhoods
  • school systems
  • community agencies
146
Q

what does multistage sampling involve?

A

use of two or more sets of clusters

147
Q

what are some advantages of cluster sampling?

A
  • useful when pop is large or spread over geographic region
  • convenient/expedient
  • don’t need names of everyone
148
Q

what are some disadvantages of cluster sampling?

A
  • rep is likely to be an issue

- assumptions of stat procedures can be violated limiting analyses

149
Q

what is systemic sampling?

A

selecting every 5th or 10th (or some other) participant from list of members of pop

150
Q

what is an advantage of systemic sampling?

A

easily done

151
Q

what is a disadvantage of systemic sampling?

A
  • susceptible to systemic exclusion of some subgroups

- some members of pop don’t have an equal chance of being included

152
Q

when in selecting non-random samples useful?

A

when pop cannot be described or logistics of completion of study do not allow for random sampling

153
Q

what are the three techniques of selecting non-random samples?

A
  • convenience
  • purposive
  • quota
154
Q

what is convenience sampling?

A

selection based on availability of participants

155
Q

what is purposive sampling?

A

selection based on researcher experience of individuals being sampled

156
Q

why is purposive sampling usually selected?

A
  • knowledge that they have a diagnosis
  • common experience
  • being in a specific setting such as clinics etc.
157
Q

what are some concerns of convenience sampling?

A

related to representation and generalisability are present

158
Q

what are some concerns of quota sampling?

A

accessibility, representation, and generalisability are present

159
Q

what are some concerns with purposive sampling?

A

concerns related to representation and generalisability are present

160
Q

what is selection based on in quota sampling?

A

selection based on exact characteristics and quotas of participants in the sample when impossible to list all members

161
Q

what are some goals of qualitative research?

A
  • meaning
  • context
  • process
  • reasoning
162
Q

what does qualitative data provide in-depth info on?

A
  • thoughts/views/interpretation
  • priorities
  • processes
  • intended effects of actions
  • feelings/experience
163
Q

what are some challenges of collecting qualitative data?

A

challenging and time consuming also no step process which can create frustration

164
Q

what is thematic coding?

A

theory emerges out of data rather than being developed in advance

165
Q

what is memo writing?

A

make field notes throughout the entire data collection allows evaluation and modification

166
Q

what are some considerations of analysis?

A
  • chronology
  • key events
  • various settings
  • process
  • issues
167
Q

what are the three key processes of grounded theory?

A
  • initial/open coding
  • axial coding
  • selective coding
168
Q

what is initial/open coding in grounded theory?

A

literal line-by-line reading and interpretation of salient categories

169
Q

what is axial coding in grounded theory?

A

groupings of the first order, or open codes into coherent categories and subcategories

170
Q

what is selective coding in grounded theory?

A

selection and validating major categories that outline relationships and interactions between codes

171
Q

what is consensus coding?

A

measures the reliability of coding and improves consistency and quality of analysis

172
Q

what are the two processes of inductive content analysis?

A

open coding and creating categories

173
Q

what is open coding in inductive content analysis?

A

literal interpretation and making notes and headings in text

174
Q

when is deductive reasoning often used?

A

in cases where researcher wishes to retest existing data in new data

skills for evidence based practice (2 decks)

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