test 1 Flashcards
what does PICO stand for?
- patient
- intervention
- comparison intervention
- outcome
what is the main aim of evidence based practice?
improve outcome and client care
why is evidence based practice important?
- communicates research
- improves knowledge
- links theory to practice
what type of studies address research questions about treatment?
- systemic reviews
- randomised controlled trials
- single case experimental studies
what type of studies address research questions about patient experience or concerns?
qualitative research such as interviews, surveys or focus groups
what type of studies address research questions about course of disease process?
- cohort
- follow up
- longitudinal
what type of studies address research questions about cost effectiveness?
economic studies comparing outcome against cost
how is the strength of studies about treatment effectiveness determined?
- size of effect
- how confident we are of observed effect
- number of studies confirming results
- findings from other studies
what are some limitations of higher-level evidence-based practice?
- inappropriate for many questions
- usually done with clearly defined/delimited populations
what are some barriers to evidence based practice?
- attitude of question
- know-how in finding, appraising and applying evidence
- lack of time/prof dev
- unsure of EBP and how to use evidence
who does the human research ethics committee comprise of?
- researchers
- health/social care professionals
- lay person
- lawyer
- pastoral care role
- balance of men and women
who developed the Aus national statement on ethical conduct in human research (2007/2015)?
- national health medical research council (NHMRC)
- aus research council (ARC)
- aus vice-chancellor committee
what does the aus national statement on ethical conduct in human research focus on?
- promote ethical research
- respect/protect participants
- research benefits
what is the aus national statement on ethical conduct in human research used to do?
- inform design of studies
- guide ethical review
- conduct research
who are some vulnerable populations?
- pregnant women/foetus
- children
- people in dependent/unequal relationships
- cognitive impairment
- indigenous etc.
what are some values underpinning ethical conduct of research?
- research merit
- integrity
- justice
- beneficence
- respect
what are some research merits as a value underpinning ethical conduct?
- has benefits
- design and method suitable to answer aim
- based on literature
- conducted by people with necessary skills/experience
what is research integrity as a value underpinning ethical conduct?
must commit to
- searching for knowledge
- following principles of conduct
- honesty
- communicate results
what is justice as a value underpinning ethical conduct?
- respect shared sameness of people
- distributive justice: benefits and burdens fairly distributed
- procedural justice: participant recruitment/review is fair
what is beneficence as a value underpinning ethical conduct?
- assess risks and benefits
- benefits must outweigh risk
what is respect as a value underpinning ethical conduct?
- welfare, beliefs, perceptions
- privacy, cultural sensitivities
- individual capacity to make. decisions
what are the potential benefits/beneficence of research to knowledge?
- gain knowledge, insight and understanding
- increase skills
what are the potential benefits/beneficence of research to participants?
- opportunity to reflect/share knowledge on experiences
- sense of contributing to society
- benefit from new interventions
what are the potential benefits/beneficence of research to the broader community?
- increase public knowledge
- increase resources
- increase ability to address issues
what are the levels of risk in research/non-maleficence?
-harm, discomfort (low risk), or inconvenience (negligible risk)
what can risk in research/non-maleficence result from?
- research process
- data collection/storage
- dissemination of findings
how can researchers respect autonomy (informed consent)?
- participant info in plain language outlining study design
- obtaining/documenting consent
- declining/withdrawing consent
how can coercion or pressure be an ethical consideration to research?
- decision to participate is free from pressure
- must be voluntary
how can deception be an ethical consideration to research?
- relevant info is withheld or misleading
- might occur where they knew research purposes might alter behaviour
how can participation recruitment be an ethical consideration to research?
- equal chance to participate
- guided by inclusion/exclusion criteria in study
how can data identification be an ethical consideration to research?
relates to datasets and how data may be collected, stored or disclosed
how can confidentiality be an ethical consideration to research?
- focuses on concealing participants
- must inform where there is potential that they will be identified
- interview transcripts use fake name, change of place etc.
how can data management and storage during a study be an ethical consideration to research?
- identifiable data stored separately
- paper filed away
- electronic password protect at approved institution
how can data management and storage at the end of the study be an ethical consideration to research?
- HREC will stipulate how long data must be retained
- must retain data and signed consent
- destroying data at conclusion
how can accuracy when reporting findings be an ethical consideration to research?
- must report both positive and negative
- three forms of misconduct reporting include: fabrication, falsification and plagiarism
what are five ways of knowing?
- personal experience
- traditions
- expert/authorities
- logic
- scientific method
what are some limitations of tradition?
- often based on idealised past
- may not reflect current reality
- may be resistant to change
what are some limitations of experts or authorities?
- can be wrong/disagree among themselves
- can be biased
- can have limited world view
what is deductive reasoning?
reasoning from general to specific
what are some limitations of deductive reasoning?
- must begin with true premiss in order to arrive at true conclusion
- only organises what is already known
what is the goal of the scientific method?
to explain, predict, and/or phenomena
what does the scientific method involve?
acquisition of knowledge and development and testing of theory
what are some limitations of scientific method?
- un-ability to answer value-based questions, only answer objective questions
- inability to capture complexities of individuals
- ethical/legal responsibilities
what are some difficulties of health science and OT research?
- complexities associated
- controlling bias
- problems imposing sufficient controls
what is a hypothesis?
contain two or more variables that are measurable or potentially measurable and that specify how variables are related
what is a directional hypothesis?
premise statement indicating nature/direction of relationship/difference between variables
what is a non-directional hypothesis?
states only that relationship/difference will occur
what are some features of variables?
- identified as independent or dependent
- element identified in hypothesis/research question
- must have two or more levels
what is operational in relation to variables?
describes variable in terms of operations used to produce/techniques used to measure
what is the dependent variable?
- primary interest
- hypothesis/question describes changes in it
- variable is influenced or changed by independent
what is an independent variable?
- research manipulates this
- potential causes under investigation
what are the five purpose categories/types of research?
- basic
- applied
- evaluation
- research and development
- action
what is applied research?
collection and analysis of data to examine the usefulness of therapy in solving practical problems
what are two types of evaluation research?
- formative
- summative
what is formative evaluation research?
designed to inform and improve program
what is summative evaluation research?
designed to make decisions regarding the overall quality of the program
what is the goal of research and development?
develop effective products for use in health and OT
what are some assumptions of researchers in quantitative research methods?
- live in a stable, coherent world
- can measure, generalize and understand
- generally regarded as positivistic and reductionistic
what are some characteristics of quantitative research methods?
- numerical data
- use of formally stated hypotheses and procedures
- use of controls
- large number of participants
what are five basic quantitative research designs?
- descriptive
- correlational
- causal-comparative
- experimental
- single subject
what is the purpose of descriptive quantitative designs?
to describe current status of variable of interest
what is the purpose of causal-comparative quantitative designs?
explore relationships among variables that cannot be actively manipulated
what is an important characteristic of causal-comparative quantitative research design?
the independent variable has already been manipulated
what does the researcher manipulate and control during experimental quantitative designs?
manipulate IV and control extraneous variables
what does the researcher aim to minimise during experimental quantitative research designs?
impact of chance, enviro, and other factors that influence IV
what is the purpose of single-subject quantitative designs?
to investigate the cause and effect relationships with sample of1
what is oncology?
philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality (what is there?)
what is epistemology?
what we accept as valid evidence of that reality (what we know? how we know it?)
what is methodology?
means by which we investigate that context
what is method?
means by which we gather evidence
what is a positivist (quantitative) foundation?
apply deductive and more scientific views
what is interpretivist (qualitative) foundation?
apply inductive ‘deeper truth reasoning views
what is the aim of qualitative research questions?
to discover meaning or gain understanding of a phenomena by asking for experiences
what are some benefits of qualitative approach to research?
uses open ended questions to understand experience
what are the limitations of the qualitative research approach?
- cannot generalise
- not suitable for statistical methods
- difficult to identify relationships between characteristics
what are some common qualitative research designs?
- case study
- ethnography
- grounded theory
- phenomenology
- narrative research
- participatory action
- critical theory
what do case studies investigate as a qualitative design?
investigate contemporary phenomenon in real life context
what does phenomenology investigate as a qualitative design?
understand culture
what does grounded theory investigate as a qualitative design?
generate theory
what does narrative research investigate as a qualitative design?
understands stories of marginalised individuals
what does participatory action investigate as a qualitative design?
generates knowledge to inform action
what does critical theory investigate as a qualitative design?
underrated experiences for social change
what are different types of info?
- knowledge
- opinions, attitudes, beliefs and values
- behaviour
- attributes
what are theories used for in research?
help design research question, guide selection of data, interpret data and propose explanations of causes
what theories enter a project early?
ethnography and phenomenology
what theory enters a project late?
grounded theory
what is the measurement in experimental research defined as?
process of quantifying info/measurement if a primary concern, observations into numerical values
what is conceptualisation as a measurement process?
identify/define concept that is to be measured
what is operationalisation as a measurement process?
determine operational definition of concept
what is level and scaling as a measurement process in experimental research?
determine level of measurement and select scaling technique
what does the level of measurement refer to?
properties and meaning of numbers assigned to observation
what are the four levels of measurement?
- nominal
- ordinal
- interval
- ratio
what are the two properties that must be measured in experimental research?
discrete and continuous
what is a discrete variable?
has finite number of distinct values such as gender
what is a continuous variable?
has an infinite number of values such as age/height
what does nominal/categorical measure?
involves classifying observations into mutually exclusive categories
are variables ordered in a particular way in nominal measurement?
no
are variables continuous or discrete in nominal measurement?
discrete
what does the ordinal level of measurement involve?
ranking of phenomena
how does the option of responses occur for ordinal variables?
range of response options but do not know actual measurement distance between each option
does interval measurement level have equal or an unknown distance between variable categories?
equal
are interval variables discrete or continuous?
continuous
what do interval variables indicate?
how categories differ
what is the highest level of measurement?
ratio
what are the three main scaling formats used?
- Likert-type scale
- guttman
- semantic differential
what do respondents answer items based on in the Likert type scale?
based on level of agreement/disagreement, select one of several responses
what is the guttman scale used to assess?
attributes and beliefs
how do participants respond to a guttman scaler?
arranged according to degree of agreement or intensity in ascending order
what are ways to measure reliability?
- stability: test-retest
- internal consistency
- equivalence: alternate form, split-half
what is internal consistency?
consistency is internally examined in relation to composite score
what does inter-rater reliability involve?
comparison of two sets of raters evaluating same test performance
what dos validity address?
relation between construct and measurement
what is the basic form of validity?
content validity
what is content/face validity?
refers to degree to which indicator reflects basic content of domain of interest
what does criterion-related validity demonstrate?
correlation between scale and another instrument that has been shown accurate
what is concurrent validity?
two tests should be correlated with. each other if they are completed by some group of subjects
what is predictive validity?
used when the purpose of the instrument is to predict the future performance of individual
what is discriminative validity?
instrument and criterion variable are administered to same group of participants; two constructs should not be correlated with each other
what is grounded theory
refers to inductive process of generating theory from data
what does the preparation of the grounded theory process involve?
- mimising preconceptions
- no preliminary literature review
- general research topic, no predetermined research problem
how is the data collection of grounded theory process done?
- most common form: intensive interviews, often with observation
- theoretical sampling
how is the analysis of grounded theory process done?
rigorous process with constant comparative analysis
what are the 3 key processes of grounded theory?
- open coding
- axial coding
- selective coding
what is open coding in grounded theory?
literal line-by-line reading and interpretation of salient categories
what is axial coding in grounded theory?
grouping of first order or open codes. into coherent categories and sub categories
what is selective coding in grounded theory?
selecting and validating major categories that outline relationships and interactions between codes
what are the two major categories of mixed methods?
sequential and concurrent
what does narrative data weave together?
sequence of events usually from one or two individuals to form story
what does phenomenology attempt to understand?
whom they observe from subject’s perspective, sets aside own experience
what are constructs?
abstractions that cannot be observed directly but are helpful when explaining behaviour
what are some constructs?
- intelligence
- attitudes
- self concept
- play skills
what is operational?
ways by which constructs are observed and measured
what is a variable?
constructs that has been operationalised and has two or more values
what are performance assessments?
focus on processes or products that have been created
what are raw scores?
actual score made
what are standard scores?
statistical transformation of raw scores
what is norm-referenced data?
scores interpreted relative to score of others taking the test
what is criterion-referenced data?
scores interpreted relative predetermined level of performance
what are aptitude tests?
measuring general mental ability usually for predicting future performance
what are some scales for affective?
Likert and Semantic differential
what are some problems with using a self-report?
- bias
- socially acceptable responses
- accuracy
what does validity address?
issues of relationship between concept and measurement
what are four types of validity?
- construct
- internal
- external
- criterion-related
what is construct validity?
extent to which test measure the concept and measurement
what is internal validity?
the extent to which results demonstrate a causal relationship exists between dependent and independent variables
what is external validity?
concerned with to whom, in what settings, and at what times results can be
generalised
what are two types of criterion-related validity?
predictive and concurrent
what is criterion-related predictive validity?
what extent test predicts future behaviour, or performance
what is criterion-related concurrent validity?
to who extent does test predict performance at same time
what are some factors affecting validity?
- bias
- unclear test direction
- items do not represent enough construct being measured
- inconsistent scoring
what are some characteristics of reliability?
- stability
- equivalence
- internal consistency
- score/rater
what is stability in relation to reliability?
consistency over time with same instrument
what is equivalence in relation to reliability?
consistency with two parallel tests administered at same time
what is internal consistency in relation to reliability?
artificially splitting test between raters
what is the scorer/rater in relation to reliability?
consistency of observations between raters
what are some psychometric properties to consider when selecting a test?
- validity
- reliability
- length of test
- scoring and score interpretation
what is generally the am of quantitative research?
typically generalise from participants to larger populations
is qualitative research generalised to the population?
no
what are the advantages of qualitative data collection?
- good response rate
- can investigate motives/feelings
- complete and immediate
what are the disadvantages of qualitative data collection?
- time consuming
- can be expensive
- respondent bias
what are the types of observations?
- open
- closed
- observation of objects
what are some dimensions of observation?
-space
-actors
-activities
-object
-time
-goal
feelings
what are some things to consider when developing an interview guide?
- what is focus?
- what is types of info you are seeking?
- who are participants?
- how might you word questions?
what are some types of questions that should be utilised in an interview?
- clear/single
- open-ended
- sequence
- probing
what should occur in planning stage of interview?
- prep explanatory statement/consent form
- test questions
- document response
what should occur in beginning stage of interview?
- introduce
- explain purpose
- explain what you are doing
- obtain written consent
what should occur in finishing stage of interview?
consider summarising, feedback, opportunity to ask questions and thanking
is purposive sampling most common in quant or qual research?
qualitative
what is aim of purposive sampling?
to identify info-rich informants based on pre-selected criteria
what is quota-sampling?
involves deciding on how many people with what characteristics to include
what is quota sampling more specific in terms of compared to purposive?
size and proportions
what does convenience sampling data do?
collects data from those people or other relevant elements to which they have most convenient access
what is a drawback of convenience sampling?
sample may be biased, some over/under selected or missed
what is snowball sampling?
participants refer researcher to friend
what is theoretical sampling?
process controlled by emerging theory (grounded theory)
what is data saturation?
sampling ceases at point of. saturation has been reached
