Test 1:P1,P2,P3,P4 Flashcards
What are the types of Biomolecules ?
Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Nucleic acid
What are the monomers of each Biomolecules?
Protein-Amino acids
Lipids-Glycerol and fatty acid (not really monomers
Carbohydrates -Monosaccharides
Nucleic acid-Nucleotides
What does each Biomolecules do?
Carbohydrates-They are a fast source of energy and are breads
Proteins-(meats)Help with muscles building, help in the immunes systems and proteins are enzymes, DNA codes for gene-for structures and function of the body
Lipids-They are fats that help insulating, long term energy, made up cell membranes.
Nucleic acid- (RNA and DNA)-genetic info for coding
What is the biomolecules elements
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic
elements in biomolecules
What are the Differences between Eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes
-Biggers
-Internal membranes
-Organelles
-you
All multicelled organism
-DNA is a line
Prokaryotes
-10 x smaller than eukaryotic cell(Size of prokaryotic cell’s mitochondria)
-no Internal membranes(no membrane around it DNA)
-no Organelles(no membrane bound organelles
-bacteria
-DNA is a circle
-Because not internal membrane its DNA is wrapped on top of each other
What is the building block of lipids?
Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Theory
Theory- an idea that explains all the
data –from all experiments (ever)(Explain what happened and why)
-stronger than a law(Just explain what happen not why)
-not the same as a guess
not a hypothesis
-only described after years of work- typically
thousands of experiments
-as good as it gets in science
Gene
Gene-A section of nucleic acid (usually DNA ) chain that gives instructions to the cell on how to do something
Example-X to Y on DNA or RNA codes to make something would be a gene
Unit of nucleic acid that code for a thing
nucleic acid (usually DNA)-section of chain that gives
instructions to cell for how to
do something
Evolution
Evolution: It is the Change in gene frequencies across
generations
-
Example: 10% of squirrel code for black fur 27 year ago to now 50% of squirrel code for black fur today
Cell Theory
All cells come from other cells
How to Plant cells compare to animal cells and what is in them
Animal Cell are like our cell
Plants cells
-same parts
as animal
cells,
They have what
-cell wall
-vacuole
-chloroplast(found in the central vacuole)
-(Plants have mitochondria)
-Plants have cell walls and cell membranes
-Animals cell just have cell membranes
What parts of molecules is in the muscle cell and what do we learn
-Pink plaid part-proteins
-Black Dot-Nucleus
-White part-lipids
-Dull white dot with (light pink) -Carbohydrates
Learn: Carbohydrate sugars are floating in and out of cell. The other three components are visible
What is a protein made of, what is it bonds
Made up of amino acid
-2 amino acids connected by peptide bond (covalent bond)(C-N)
-c-c=o(always bottom of Monomer)
-Bottom of all amino acid are the same
-20 amino acids in the human body
-top of the amino acid determines it shapes called the R group
what is nucleic acid made of
Monomer-nucleotide
Nucleotide=phosphate+sugar+Base
The sugar part can be DNA or RNA
RNA-Ribose sugar(With oxygen)
DNA-Deoxyribose sugar(without oxygen)
Bond is phosphodiester bond (a type of covalent bond) that connect P+S+B
What is a carbohydrate and bonds
Monomer is monosacharride
2 connected together is a disacharride
Sugar linked together by covalent bonds
Carbohydrates=Carbon+Hydrogen+Oxygen
Sugar- Cx(H2O)y-
Function- used for structure(good for building stuff) and
energy storage-
When you take water from a dries tree carbohydrates are left behind
What are lipids and what are their bonds
Lipids is glycerol and fatty acids
Function-Energy storages and membranes, lipids stored as fats
Lipids-Hydrophilic head (likes water) and hydrophobic tail (repels water)
-chain of C with 2 H but end has O-C-O-H that is hydrophilic(In general they are hydrophobic)
-Apples shiny because lipids on the outside of it
-Can’t make a cell without cholesterol
Structure: OH
/ \
Cwith 2 H O
Why do plants store more energy as carbs than people store lipids
Lipids are efficient in the number of bonds per unit mass meaning they are more energy dense. If we stored as many carbohydrates, we would weigh 8x time more and this wouldn’t be practical because we move to get food to sustain ourselves in through movement.
While it is efficient for a plant because plants don’t move and make carbohydrates directly from Photosynthesis
How did macromolecules which are monomers form
Water+Heat+Bad Weather(lightning)
What was miller primitive earth experiment, what did he found,
how did he find it,
It was an experiment to mimic the atmosphere of earth:
He put :carbon,oxygen,hydrogen,nitogen and phosphorus to water+heat+lighting reaction machine and got amino acid and a fatty acid (Butyric acid) and fatty acid are a part of lipid to contribute to cells
To see what He got:
Separated substances using a thin layer of chromatography
-separated thing by size and how hydrophilic it is
up and down was how big it was
left to right was how easily it dissolves in water
How do you get from macromolecule to a cells(first cell), what is its strcture
First cell was phospholipid put in water=vesicle
First cell Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail (outside and inside), lumen of vesicles has water in it
-Has a membrane
-Water loving outside
-water hating inside
-There has compartments with water on the inside and outside of the vesicle
Structure: It is made into a sphere of bilayer of lipids/micelles and the center cavity is the lumen which contains water
-
How would the first cell get information to another generation of cells(inheritance)
Hypothesis-First cell used RNA to pass genetic information and catalyze reaction(ltheir are ribozymes made of RNA that catalyze reactions)
Ribozymes
Ribozymes-They are a chain RNA nucleic aid with part/base pair that stcik to each other that function to manipulate RNA by adding and subtracting RNA nucleotides to create the 3D shape
Unicellular tetrahymena-singled celled Eukaryotic cell
Tetrahymena-RNA added and subtracted to a chain (cut mRNA and tie off chain)
Function Ribozymes Experiment
Goal: Could Ribozymes work to put RNA bases together
Process: Started with (32P)pC5, gave ribozymes alot of C,U,A or G to see if ribozymes add to it or subtracts nucleotides
Confirmed: Ribozymes work on RNA by catalyzes reaction to build RNA Chains
What is directed Evolution of Ribozyme
It is like man made selection to get the best gene like dog breeding
How does Directed Evolution of Ribozyme work
Goal: To see if they could build a population of ribozymes sequences for variety
Experiment: Had ribozymes and changed it base pairs to select the one that works the fastest and only allow the fastest one to replicate to create a population 700x faster than the original
They made 10 trillion versions
Conclusion: Artificial selection- can be much faster than natural selection
Evolving over time as this experiment show is important for the process of a vesicles to be consider the process to make a real cell
What is conservative region
These are region of nucleotides that are the same sequences no matter how much you change it. If you don’t have these sequences then you die/doesn’t work.
The sequences
RNA world Hypothesis
1.Miller experiment C+H+N+O+P in machine(water+heat+lighting)=Amino acid and fatty acid
2.Natural vesicle are phospholipid in water that have bilayer micelle like a cell
3.Herediity-RNA pass Genetic Info and catalyzes reaction with ribozymes
4.Ribozymes-subtract and add nuclides and the fastest to add, replicates to create a bigger population to make complex organism
Group experiment- Gave micelle more phospholipids
Goal: To see if you gave an abiotic vesicles phospholipid would it grow and could divide
Group experiment- Gave micelle more phospholipids
Results
A:Vesticles grow in radius over time
B:Vesticles get bigger when you feed them longer
C:Vesticles can grow and divide because they use the pressure of a coffee filter and it divided and it continued to grow
Evidence of how you get to cell
-Has RNA for catalyzing reaction through ribozymes and pass genetic information
-Has a cell wall to protect it cell
-It has function to store energy through ph. gradients
-Abiotic vesicles capture another vesicle and RNA and don’t digest them and they still work to catalyzing reaction and help the cell function
What is the Differences in Organelles Between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
E-Organelles
Membrane bound organelles that contain DNA
-Mitochondria
-Nucleolus
-Ribosomes
-cell membrane
P-Organelles
-Flagellum
-Ribosomes
Cell Membrane
-Nucleoid
What came first the Prokaryotic cell or Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
Vesicle Function Experiment
Goal: How to make a vesicles function is having organelles
Experiment: Green fatty acid to highlight vesicles using sphere beads and green fluorenes used to highlight, and RNA Red Clay
Results: Vesicle swallowed RNA and smaller vesicles and they still worked
What does ph have to do with how a vesicles could be an early cell
Ph is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions and cells use phi as a source of energy through ph. gradient
Example: More H+ inside the cell than outside the cell create a gradient to have the cell create energy like water tower
What is PH
Ph of a solution indicates Acidity or Alkalinity
water dissolve to H+ and OH-
high H+=acidic=low ph(2)
high OH-=alkaline=high ph.()
Example of ph Scale
7-Neutral
ph less than 7 is acidic
ph more the 7 is basic
log10(1x10^-7)=-7 (ph is the negative of base log 10
ph change example
More H+ goes to 2
Less H+ goes to 14
Ph 7-6 is 10 time more H+
ph7-5 is 10x10=100 time more H+
Ph difference example
0.3 ph change is 10^0.3
Meaning 7.3 to 7, ph 7 has twice as much H+ ions
Common PH
Acidic:lemon juice and gastric acid
Neutral:water and blood
Basic:Bleach and drain cleaner
How do ph Gradient work
Some Phospholipids has H+ attached to them which go to the outside of a cell and flips to the inside of the cell which increase the H+ inside the cell which lower the ph inside the cell
Pressure create by H+ build up on the inside and the outside of the cell having different pressure create pressure like a water tower and this pressure make energy for the cell
How big are cells
Cell different shapes and sizes
-Long neuron cell form giraffe
-Different shape cells in diatoms
What is Evolution of Diaton cell/Endosymbitoic theory and it products
Eukaryotic cell swallowed a prokaryotic cell which was one a free-floating cell
-Product form this theory is mitochondria and chloroplast
Evidences of Endosymbiotic Theory
Organelle have different DNA-(O is a circular and E is linear)
-They E and O have their own membrane
-Both produce energy(More microconidia cells made not muscles cell when you work out)
-Both have their own gene sequences
-Organelles can divide independent the cell
-mitochondria has two membranes
-Seen in today-slug and chloroplast
-Organelles about the size of typical prokaryotic cell
How did we get from a vesicle to a cell
1.Vesticles grow with micelles to habe bilayer that looks like a cell
2.Vesticles have ph graident to create energy
3.Each RNA and Vesicles that act as organelles that still function and catalyze reaction
What is the cell membrane and why do they call it a mosaic
The cell membrane is called a fluid mosaic because it has macromolecules except nucleic acid and the fluid part just meaning all its different parts move (diversity in parts and ability)
-Explain example and why it is different than a real membrane
That membrane in the example was just phospholipid with water on the outside with no protein however real remembrances are 50% protein and move like walking through a ball pit where the phospholipids are the ball and move out of the way for protein to move through
How does lipid composition affect function(warm)(distribution of type of lipids)
Warm-Rigid and relaxed lipids
(Ear numb when ice is put on is because lipids are solid and can’t move)
Different distribution of relaxed and rigid lipids changes the shape of it and can self-assemble into complex structures
How did scientist find out the protein moves
Frap-Laser blast protein out of place and photobleached protein to see that protein move in the dark/blank space
Describe the cytoplasmic and how cell move across it
It is crowed and it has water like a pool with too many Floates as (organelles)
The cytoplasm is crowded because it has a lot of different things in the cell
prokaryotic cell is packed, it would take a long time for diffusion, so cell use other methods
-It’s hard to go from one part of cell to their other
-Nucleic use electricity to communicate information across the cell
-Motor molecules-walk from one cell to another
-Specialized cell don’t use diffusion to go across they cell but other methods
Griffith experiment
Positive Control-part of experiment giving a positive result to confirm system is working
as we expect(S cells kill rat and you get s cells out)
Negative control- Part of experiment that gives negative result to confirm
system is working as we expect. (R Cell don’t kill rat and get r cells out)
-When you heat s cell you don’t kill the rat and don’t get s cells out
-heated s cells + r cells killed the rat and get s cell out
Goal to establish questions (Why did the r cell reanimated dead s cell because of DNA, the cell passed on it DNA)
This was wrong by what was the mathematic behind thinking protein coded and not nucleic acid
There are 20 amino acids
4 types of Nucleotides Code for nucleic acids
4 bonds-One phosphate to 4 oxygens
There 20 amino acids in protein more combination to code while there are only 4 nucleotides in nucleic acid
4 nucleotides with 11 nucleotide long sequences 4^11
20 amino with 23 amino acid long sequences is 20^23
Avery Experiment-(Protein or Nucleic acid is transforming material)
Goal: Protein or Nucleic acid codes as Transforming factor for S cells and r cells
Experiment: Extracted the white transforming material to see what it was made of it has high in phosphate and Only Nucleotides
-Look to see what the material was made of and got the ratio of element for DNA that is high in phosphate
-Second experiment eliminated all proteins by adding an enzyme but still could turn r into s cells
Results: nitrogen/phosphorous ratios of transforming factor ≈ DNA
Conclusion: Protein Doesn’t isn’t transforming material and nucleic acid/DNA turning 15.32/9.02
Hershey and chase experiment
Goal-DNA or Protein-transforming material
Experiment: phage Inject E. coli on membrane of a cell and waits 5 minutes, turn off blender to knock off extra material of the protein-puts in centrifuge to see what was on the outsides and insides
Outside protein, inside nucleic acid because they have different radioactivity
Protein (counting radiative sulfur s35)
Nucleic acid (contain mostly phosphate)
Results -Saw that most radiative phosphate on inside and most radiative outside sulfur confirm that was transmitted in the cell was nucleic acid
Hershey and Chase-Why some are 99% s(outside) and 1% S(inside)
(some bacteria contain S inside the cell)
-some bacteria progeny can have P 32 on it
-some amino acid has Phosphate on them on why 70% p and 30% S on outside
DNA vs RNA Structure
RNA-look like chair with extra long leg because it has oxygen to the right(this part is RNA ATP)
DNA-look like a chair with a with chair with 2 super short leg because it doesn’t contain oxygen(This Part is DNA dATP)
-Energy molecules is a nucleic acid
the Watson and Crick model of DNA structure,
Goal: What structure does DNA have to have to replicate to Revive s cells with r cells
Experiment: -Model building of base pairing of a double helix that is antiparallel
Conclusion: Anti Parallel meaning it has ends (Look at structure)
Phosphate-sugar-base————–base-sugar-phosphate
\Sugar-base
/
Phosphate-sugar-base
What Watson and Crick Leanred about DNA Arrangement
-Anti Parallel meaning it has ends (Look at structure)
-Has hydrogen bond-Hydrogen bond must be broken to create new DNA
left 5 right 3 primes could predict and corresponding letters and opposite prime number for another strand
-A to T is 2 hydrogen bonds
-Their model was that DNA was a double strand helix which they confirm using Rosland Franklin x diffraction experiment to see the structure of DNA
G-C has 3 bonds it takes higher temperature to break
A-T has 2 bonds it takes not as high temperature to break
Hydrogen bond
H-O
H-N
O-H-N
not so strong bond
ionic bonds
O- to N+
bases(+) and acidic(-)
Strenght medium like a magnet
covalent bond
c-c
c-o
c-n
c-h
-Super strong bond
Rosalind Franklin
Collected data used by
Watson and Crick to deduce
DNA structure
Not properly credited
It used x-ray diffraction to see the structure of DNA
-Xray DNA it bounces off and the angle at which it bounces off tell you the structure of DNA
DNA replication-Semi Conservative
half of old and half of new to make 2 new strands
Read:One Hexlix:get 2 hexlix each of one strand is one and another strand is one
the two original strands of the molecule separate, and each acts as a template on which a new complementary strand is laid down. What is a semi conservative model?
DNA replication- Conservative
all of new +all of old =2 new strands
Read: One helix(old)-2 helix; one that is all new and one that is all old
DNA replication-mosaic
all stands half of new and half old -mitch match
How do cell replicate
Half old + Half new for new strand
semi conservative
Meselson & Stahl experiment
Goal: See how cells replicate
Experiment: Centrification(100x force of gravity): Spinning field to make artificial gravity make everything go to right density place for 43.5 hours. Tube salt water at bottom and free water at top. DNA goes to whatever density it is. DNA same density of salt water, so it sinks to the bottom. Then you see dark bands at the bottom
Goal: how to separate DNA of different density and you have two bands
Qualified experiment: (use nitrogen of Isotope that weight less and more to see and use diatometry)Grew one bacterium in heavy nidogen medium and after growth transfer in light nitrogen medium (after 1 day they switch)
-Bacteria at one generation had only one DNA strand-Density halfway between heavy and light
-Bacterium at second generation had two DNA-half heavy and half light
Results: Bacterium concluded half old and half new
Proved:Semi Conservate DNA Replication-When a double helix replicate
there is one strand old and one strand new to form the new helix
-one helix(old)=2 helix with both including one old strand and one new strand
