Test 1. Modules 1 - 3

Question 1

What is an ecosystem?

Answer 1

A community made up of living organisms and nonliving components such as air, water, and mineral soil.
Defined by structure (e.g. species composition), function (e.g. water and carbon capture), and processes (e.g. primary production, nutrient cycling).

Question 2

What are some factors that influence Pacific Northwest terrestrial ecosystems?

Answer 2

The orographic effect, temperature, elevation, wind, vegetation cover, glaciation/glacial depositions, precipitation, soil type, etc.

Question 3

What is Ecological Restoration?

Answer 3

The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed
(SERI 2004).

Question 4

What is Restoration Ecology?

Answer 4

The science that provides the concepts, models, methodologies and tools for the practitioners to conduct the restoration. This is the “academic” portion of the process.

Question 5

Define degradation, damage, and destruction.

Answer 5

Degradation : gradual, subtle, slow acting changes that compromise ecosystem integrity or health. E.g. invasion of oak or pine woodlands by native fir trees.
Damage: more acute and obvious ecosystem changes. E.g. fir trees overtopping the oaks, broom crowding out the native prairie grasses.
Destruction: nearly complete removal or loss of major ecosystem elements. E.g. Areas of extensive cheatgrass infestation in the sagebrush steppe have suffered repeated fires that have wiped out most native plants.

Question 6

What is a transformed ecosystem?

Answer 6

Transformed: similar to a destroyed ecosystem in some respects, but it has been completely and deliberately converted to a
different land use. E.g. Urban neighborhood or an agricultural field.

Question 7

What are some questions to consider when trying to restore an ecosystem to its ‘natural state’?

Answer 7

How do you determine what is the natural state? Does that involved the presence and disturbance of humans? Of Indigenous People? How do you know what conditions were present at the historical/natural site? Are those conditions even possible in this time period? What is the end state of the ecosystem and what about dynamic trajectories?

Question 8

What is a reference ecosystem?

Answer 8

An ecosystem with conditions similar to what was believed to have occurred at some point in the past before the ecosystem was degraded. Can include contemporary (modern) or historical (traditional) reference ecosystems.

“Appropriate reference models are based not on immobilizing an ecological community at some point in time but on increasing potential for native species and communities to recover and continue to reassemble, adapt and evolve” SER Primer 2019

Question 9

What are the six expected attributes of a restored ecosystem as defined by SER?

Answer 9

Species composition
Structural diversity
Ecosystem function
External exchanges
Absence of threats
Physical conditions

Question 10

What is the definition of soil?

Answer 10

Naturally occurring, unconsolidated, mineral or organic material at the earth’s surface, that is capable of supporting plant growth.

Question 11

Soil (pedosphere) interacts with which other spheres? What are the components of soil?

Answer 11

Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere. Biosphere

Components are then: air, water, minerals, and organic matter/biomass

Question 12

What are primary minerals prominent in?

Answer 12

Sand and silt fractions.

Question 13

What are the general soil horizon from top to bottom?

Answer 13

O (organic, LFH-litter, fermented, humic)
A (Topsoil)
B (Subsoil)
C (Substratum)
R (Bedrock)

Question 14

What are soil aggregates?

Answer 14

• Granular aggregation of surface soils.
• Smaller aggregates are more stable than larger aggregates.
• Biological and physical-chemical (abiotic) processes involved in aggregate formation.

Question 15

What is the difference between macropores and micropores?

Answer 15

macropores: allow water and air flow, roots;
micropores: slow water movement, not available to plants

Question 16

What is soil particle density and bulk density?

Answer 16

Soil Particle Density Dp= Weight of solids/Volume of solids=Mg/m3

Bulk Density Db= Weight of solids/volume of soil (solids + pores)= Mg/m3

Question 17

Can soil particles travel far?

Answer 17

Yes. Think about hillslope failures, transport through wind and water, etc.
Will depend on where the particles are located in the soil horizons.

Question 18

Summarize what soil water is.

Answer 18

Soil water is held within soil pores
•More accurately called (has dissolved inorganic and organic substances)
•Chemical and biologic reactions are dependent on levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-), determined by measuring the pH of the soil
•Soil solids, particularly fine inorganic (clay) and organic (humus) constitute the colloidal particles.
•Essential for the survival and growth of plants and other organisms

Question 19

What are soil colloids?

Answer 19

• the most active constituent of the soil
• determine the physical and chemical properties of the soil.

They are important because their surfaces attract soil nutrients dissolved in soil, water as positively charged mineral ions, or cations.”

Colloids are negative, and attract cations.

Cations (e.g. Al3+,Ca2+, Mg2+…) are held by electrostatic attraction to the colloids negatively charged (e.g. clay particles)

Question 20

What does S=f(ClORPT…) mean?

Answer 20

Climate
Organisms
Relief (topography)
Parent material
Time

These are the factors that influence soil formation.

Question 21

What is soil organic matter and why is it important?

Answer 21

SOM: A fraction of the soil that is composed of both living organisms and once living residues in various stages of decomposition.

Importance

• Rapid decomposition of organic residues
• Formation of water stable aggregates
• Decreased crusting and clodding
• Improved internal drainage
• Increased water and nutrient holding capacity

Question 22

What are soil amendments?

Answer 22

Any substances added to soil to change its chemical, physical and/or biological properties. They always do more than one thing: change soils, hydrologic conditions, nutrients, organic matter, erosion, temperature, evaporation, protect seedlings, seed source. Amendments are critical in developing a soil or substrate.

Question 23

What should be considered when using soil amendments?

Answer 23

• Know the purpose of amendments, assess what to change (organic matter, bulk density, pH, nutrients).
• Assess levels to reduce or augment, calculate amendment needed
• Consider decomposition rate, short and long term impacts, soil properties changed
• Consider cost, transportation distance, availability, regulations, climate, landscape features, future land use, incorporation equipment needed, shredding devices on site to reduce cost

Question 24

What is Anthropogenic Soil?

Answer 24

Anthroposolic soils have one or more of their natural horizons removed, removed and replaced, added to, or significantly modified by human activities. (Naeth et al. 2012.)

Manufactured materials may be added as a layer or component of a layer. Materials may have potential adverse characteristics (e.g. physical artefacts and chemical layers from manufacturing processes).

Question 25

What are Anthroposols?

Answer 25

Azonal soils that have been highly modified or constructed by human activity.
Soil disturbance or modification is evident, occurring >= 10cm above or below soil surface.
One or more natural horizons may be removed, removed and replaced, added to, or significantly modified.
Natural soil forming factors have been severely disrupted anthropogenically and potentially new pedogenic trajectories have thus been introduced.

Question 26

Define the D Layer in Antrhoposols.

Answer 26

D Layers = disturbed layers. They’re anthropic in origin, and contain materials that have been significantly modified physically and/or chemically by human activities.
The soil can be modified in situ, physically translocated, or added on top of existing natural soil or subsoil materials. In situ modification can include physical manipulation of structure or addition and incorporation of natural or human made materials.

Question 27

Why do you need to understand disturbance?

Answer 27

So you know what needs to be restored at your site. Understanding pre and post disturbance, and the type of disturbance was increase the success of your project.

Question 28

What is cation exchange?

What is it fundamental for?

Answer 28

Cation Exchange happens when cations break away from the swarm and move out to the soil solution. Another cation of equal charge will move in from the soil solution replacing it. This is fundamental to nutrient cycling.