Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

PHIL105 - Test Questions > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is critical thinking?

A

Thinking logically and rationally to arrive at the truth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Branches of Philosophy?

A
  1. Metaphysics
  2. Ethics
  3. Epistemology
  4. Logic
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is truth?

A

Aristotle: “Truth is saying of what is, that it is and of what is not, that it is not”

Simply = truth is where the statement made corresponds to reality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Subjectivism (relativism)

A

“X might be true for you, but X is certainly not true for me”

Relies on a singular objective reality accepted by arguing parties

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Why think critically?

A

We want our beliefs to be true. Beliefs = map of reality, therefore want the map to be as accurate as possible.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Sources of Evidence?

A
  1. Sensory experience
  2. Memory
  3. Testimony
  4. Arguments
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Arguments: Definition?

A

Sequence of statements (premise(s) and conclusion) intended to establish the truth of a statement

Include reasons and rely on our ability to evaluate evidence.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Difference between argument and rhetoric?

A

Difference b/w an argument and rhetoric is that a successful argument is an aid to understanding, while successful rhetoric produces a desired action

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Principle of Charity

A

Should prefer good reconstructions of arguments, as the ultimate goal is truth.

Reconstructing an argument in a negative light to look like a bad argument is pointless, as you are no closer to knowing whether that claim is true or false.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Methods for evaluating evidence

A
  1. Look for a vested interest
  2. Watch for weasel words
  3. Question surveys
  4. Caution when dealing with surveys, percentages, numbers, anecdotes, stats and graphs
  5. Retain a sense of the big picture and proportion
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Validity and valid arguments?

A

Validity = where premises guarantee the conclusion

Validity concerns the structure of the argument, not it’s truth or content (arguments can therefore be valid even if the premises are false)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Soundness

A

Sound arguments = valid arguments with premises that are actually true

All sound arguments are valid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Formal fallacies and types?

A

Fallacy = error in reasoning

Types:
Formal (form of argument)
Informal (content of argument)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Proper form:

A

P1: IF G, then F
P2: G
C: therefore F

G = anticedent, F = consequent (form of modus ponens)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Post Hoc Fallacy

A

“After this, therefore, because of this”

Claims that certain events are caused by previous events with no causal link

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Informal Fallacy: Formalising argument?

A

Can’t identify an informal fallacy by formalising argument

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Appeal to majority

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses popular belief in a proposition as evidence that the proposition is true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Ad Hominem

A

Informal Fallacy

Attacks trait of arguer to undermine arguers point

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Appeal to Authority

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses claim of authority on facts that aren’t relevant to the argument to add credibility to the argument

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

False Dichotomy

A

Informal Fallacy

Presents a limited set of alternatives as though they are the only ones, when there may be others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Appeal to Ignorance

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses lack of evidence for the opposing proposition as evidence that the presented proposition is true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Straw Man

A

Informal Fallacy

Wilfully misrepresenting an opponent’s argument so that it looks superficially similar but it is much easier to attack

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Slippery Slope

A

Informal Fallacy

Sliding from one likely event to progressively less and less likely events in ways that make the causal chain seem inevitable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Post Hoc (False Cause)

A

Informal Fallacy

Claiming that certain events are caused by previous events with no causal link

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Genetic Fallacy

A

Informal Fallacy

Assessing the truth of a claim by it’s origin or history, as opposed to its relevance or truth

26
Q

Argument from tradition

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses the fact that people have historically believed a proposition to be true as evidence that the proposition is true

27
Q

Begging the Question

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses a proposition as a premise in an argument that is intended to defend that very proposition

28
Q

Hasty Generalisation

A

Informal Fallacy

Draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

29
Q

Equivocation

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses same word or phrase to mean two different things

30
Q

Red Herring

A

Informal Fallacy

Changing what is at issue in an argument in a way that distracts from the issue at hand

31
Q

Loaded Question

A

Informal Fallacy
Asks a question informed by implicit assumptions

For example, the question “have you stopped mistreating your pet?” is a loaded question, because it presupposes that you have been mistreating your pet.

32
Q

Composition/Division

A

Informal Fallacy

Uses the attributes of individuals as evidence that the group has that attribute, or vice versa
e.g individual —-> group (composition)
group ——> individual (division)

33
Q

Moving the goalposts

A

Informal Fallacy

Set a standard for evidence and once this is met, raising the standard again or setting it somewhere else

34
Q

No true Scotsman (Appeal to Purity)

A

Informal Fallacy

Setting up criteria for a certain argument, then redefining the criteria to exclude certain outcomes.

35
Q

Heuristics

A

Cognitive shortcuts that enable us to make judgements quickly and reliably

36
Q

Bias: Confirmation

A

Look for/notice/ remember evidence that confirms our opinions/favoured theories whilst ignoring disconfirming evidence

37
Q

Bias: Negativity

A

Attend more closely to & place more weight on negative evidence than positive evidence

38
Q

Bias: Availability

A

Tend to give a lot of weight to evidence that is easily accessible

39
Q

Bias: Anchoring Effect

A

Let initial value affect our appreciation of subsequent values

40
Q

Bias: Neglecting Probability

A

Tend to be unmoved by information about the probability of various kinds of events. Therefore, tend to overestimate risks of relatively safe activities while underestimating dangerous ones

41
Q

Bias: Observational selection

A

Begin to notice something that we didnt notice before and assume that the frequency must have increased

42
Q

Bias: Status Quo

A

Fearful of change even when the status quo isnt great

43
Q

Bias: Bandwagon Effect

A

Tend to follow the crowd, sometimes unconsciously, often even when the crowd is wrong

44
Q

Bias: False Consensus

A

Overestimate how typical or normal we are and assume that most others think like us and believe what we believe

45
Q

Bias: Current Moment

A

Not good at imagining ourselves in the future therefore discount future costs and benefits

46
Q

Bias: Hindsight

A

Tend, after something has happened, to believe that we knew that it would happen all along

47
Q

Bias: Actor-observer

A

When asked to identify causes of an event, we either:

(a) If involved (as actors), tend to identify the situation as the cause
(b) Merely saw it (as observers), tend to identify the actor as the cause

48
Q

Bias: Ingroup

A

Place more weight on the views of members of our immediate group than those of outsiders

49
Q

Two types of AI?

A

Weak: AI focussed on a narrow task such as winning a game of chess
Strong: AI where the machines intellectual capability is equal to a humans

50
Q

Biases in AI are caused by?

A

(a) Bad Data

(b) Biases transferred from humans to AI

51
Q

Common tech behind AI include

A
  1. Regression based systems
  2. Deep learning/artificial neural network
  3. Expert Systems
52
Q

Automation Bias

A

Tendency to disregard or not search for contradictory information in light of a computer-generated solution that is accepted as correct

53
Q

AI Bias; Historical & Examples

A

Often build and train algorithms that are used to make predictions with historical data therefore inherent past bias

Examples:
Predpol (Feedback Loop Issue)
- kept sending police to ‘recorded crime’ areas therefore always kept finding crime there = feedback loop

COMPAS
- assesses risk of offender re-offending. However, used historical data which was skewed unfairly against black individuals

54
Q

Bias: Interaction and Examples

A

Chatbots = learn how to answer questions based on interactions they have with public

Microsoft Tay; input data taken from twitter conversations which was mainly racist, misogynistic individuals

55
Q

AI Bias: Sample

A

Data used to build AI is not representative of space within which the model will operate

E.g. Google Photo Disaster

56
Q

AI Bias: Input Selection

A

Choose factors as inputs which are biased. In case of risk prediction algo’s, often lead to minority populations being disadvantaged.

E.g. Allegheny County Algorithm

57
Q

AI; Options to solve issues

A
  1. Human in the loop
  2. Right to an explanation
  3. Choice to not be subject to an algo
58
Q

Independent Reasons

A

Reasons that provide evidence on their own`

59
Q

Dependent reasons

A

Reasons that only provide evidence when taken together

60
Q

Enthymemes

A

Arguments with unstated premises

61
Q

Rhetorical Devices

A

Sometimes premises or conclusions are presented as questions or commands

PHIL105 - Test Questions (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions