Test 1

Question 1

What is critical thinking?

Answer 1

Thinking logically and rationally to arrive at the truth

Question 2

Branches of Philosophy?

Answer 2

1. Metaphysics
2. Ethics
3. Epistemology
4. Logic

Question 3

What is truth?

Answer 3

Aristotle: “Truth is saying of what is, that it is and of what is not, that it is not”

Simply = truth is where the statement made corresponds to reality

Question 4

Subjectivism (relativism)

Answer 4

“X might be true for you, but X is certainly not true for me”

Relies on a singular objective reality accepted by arguing parties

Question 5

Why think critically?

Answer 5

We want our beliefs to be true. Beliefs = map of reality, therefore want the map to be as accurate as possible.

Question 6

Sources of Evidence?

Answer 6

1. Sensory experience
2. Memory
3. Testimony
4. Arguments

Question 7

Arguments: Definition?

Answer 7

Sequence of statements (premise(s) and conclusion) intended to establish the truth of a statement

Include reasons and rely on our ability to evaluate evidence.

Question 8

Difference between argument and rhetoric?

Answer 8

Difference b/w an argument and rhetoric is that a successful argument is an aid to understanding, while successful rhetoric produces a desired action

Question 9

Principle of Charity

Answer 9

Should prefer good reconstructions of arguments, as the ultimate goal is truth.

Reconstructing an argument in a negative light to look like a bad argument is pointless, as you are no closer to knowing whether that claim is true or false.

Question 10

Methods for evaluating evidence

Answer 10

1. Look for a vested interest
2. Watch for weasel words
3. Question surveys
4. Caution when dealing with surveys, percentages, numbers, anecdotes, stats and graphs
5. Retain a sense of the big picture and proportion

Question 11

Validity and valid arguments?

Answer 11

Validity = where premises guarantee the conclusion

Validity concerns the structure of the argument, not it’s truth or content (arguments can therefore be valid even if the premises are false)

Question 12

Soundness

Answer 12

Sound arguments = valid arguments with premises that are actually true

All sound arguments are valid

Question 13

Formal fallacies and types?

Answer 13

Fallacy = error in reasoning

Types:
Formal (form of argument)
Informal (content of argument)

Question 14

Proper form:

Answer 14

P1: IF G, then F
P2: G
C: therefore F

G = anticedent, F = consequent (form of modus ponens)

Question 15

Post Hoc Fallacy

Answer 15

“After this, therefore, because of this”

Claims that certain events are caused by previous events with no causal link

Question 16

Informal Fallacy: Formalising argument?

Answer 16

Can’t identify an informal fallacy by formalising argument

Question 17

Appeal to majority

Answer 17

Informal Fallacy

Uses popular belief in a proposition as evidence that the proposition is true

Question 18

Ad Hominem

Answer 18

Informal Fallacy

Attacks trait of arguer to undermine arguers point

Question 19

Appeal to Authority

Answer 19

Informal Fallacy

Uses claim of authority on facts that aren’t relevant to the argument to add credibility to the argument

Question 20

False Dichotomy

Answer 20

Informal Fallacy

Presents a limited set of alternatives as though they are the only ones, when there may be others

Question 21

Appeal to Ignorance

Answer 21

Informal Fallacy

Uses lack of evidence for the opposing proposition as evidence that the presented proposition is true

Question 22

Straw Man

Answer 22

Informal Fallacy

Wilfully misrepresenting an opponent’s argument so that it looks superficially similar but it is much easier to attack

Question 23

Slippery Slope

Answer 23

Informal Fallacy

Sliding from one likely event to progressively less and less likely events in ways that make the causal chain seem inevitable

Question 24

Post Hoc (False Cause)

Answer 24

Informal Fallacy

Claiming that certain events are caused by previous events with no causal link

Question 25

Genetic Fallacy

Answer 25

Informal Fallacy Assessing the truth of a claim by it's origin or history, as opposed to its relevance or truth

Question 26

Argument from tradition

Answer 26

Informal Fallacy Uses the fact that people have historically believed a proposition to be true as evidence that the proposition is true

Question 27

Begging the Question

Answer 27

Informal Fallacy Uses a proposition as a premise in an argument that is intended to defend that very proposition

Question 28

Hasty Generalisation

Answer 28

Informal Fallacy Draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

Question 29

Equivocation

Answer 29

Informal Fallacy Uses same word or phrase to mean two different things

Question 30

Red Herring

Answer 30

Informal Fallacy Changing what is at issue in an argument in a way that distracts from the issue at hand

Question 31

Loaded Question

Answer 31

Informal Fallacy Asks a question informed by implicit assumptions For example, the question “have you stopped mistreating your pet?” is a loaded question, because it presupposes that you have been mistreating your pet.

Question 32

Composition/Division

Answer 32

Informal Fallacy Uses the attributes of individuals as evidence that the group has that attribute, or vice versa e.g individual ----> group (composition) group ------> individual (division)

Question 33

Moving the goalposts

Answer 33

Informal Fallacy Set a standard for evidence and once this is met, raising the standard again or setting it somewhere else

Question 34

No true Scotsman (Appeal to Purity)

Answer 34

Informal Fallacy Setting up criteria for a certain argument, then redefining the criteria to exclude certain outcomes.

Question 35

Heuristics

Answer 35

Cognitive shortcuts that enable us to make judgements quickly and reliably

Question 36

Bias: Confirmation

Answer 36

Look for/notice/ remember evidence that confirms our opinions/favoured theories whilst ignoring disconfirming evidence

Question 37

Bias: Negativity

Answer 37

Attend more closely to & place more weight on negative evidence than positive evidence

Question 38

Bias: Availability

Answer 38

Tend to give a lot of weight to evidence that is easily accessible

Question 39

Bias: Anchoring Effect

Answer 39

Let initial value affect our appreciation of subsequent values

Question 40

Bias: Neglecting Probability

Answer 40

Tend to be unmoved by information about the probability of various kinds of events. Therefore, tend to overestimate risks of relatively safe activities while underestimating dangerous ones

Question 41

Bias: Observational selection

Answer 41

Begin to notice something that we didnt notice before and assume that the frequency must have increased

Question 42

Bias: Status Quo

Answer 42

Fearful of change even when the status quo isnt great

Question 43

Bias: Bandwagon Effect

Answer 43

Tend to follow the crowd, sometimes unconsciously, often even when the crowd is wrong

Question 44

Bias: False Consensus

Answer 44

Overestimate how typical or normal we are and assume that most others think like us and believe what we believe

Question 45

Bias: Current Moment

Answer 45

Not good at imagining ourselves in the future therefore discount future costs and benefits

Question 46

Bias: Hindsight

Answer 46

Tend, after something has happened, to believe that we knew that it would happen all along

Question 47

Bias: Actor-observer

Answer 47

When asked to identify causes of an event, we either: (a) If involved (as actors), tend to identify the situation as the cause (b) Merely saw it (as observers), tend to identify the actor as the cause

Question 48

Bias: Ingroup

Answer 48

Place more weight on the views of members of our immediate group than those of outsiders

Question 49

Two types of AI?

Answer 49

Weak: AI focussed on a narrow task such as winning a game of chess Strong: AI where the machines intellectual capability is equal to a humans

Question 50

Biases in AI are caused by?

Answer 50

(a) Bad Data | (b) Biases transferred from humans to AI

Question 51

Common tech behind AI include

Answer 51

1. Regression based systems 2. Deep learning/artificial neural network 3. Expert Systems

Question 52

Automation Bias

Answer 52

Tendency to disregard or not search for contradictory information in light of a computer-generated solution that is accepted as correct

Question 53

AI Bias; Historical & Examples

Answer 53

Often build and train algorithms that are used to make predictions with historical data therefore inherent past bias Examples: Predpol (Feedback Loop Issue) - kept sending police to 'recorded crime' areas therefore always kept finding crime there = feedback loop COMPAS - assesses risk of offender re-offending. However, used historical data which was skewed unfairly against black individuals

Question 54

Bias: Interaction and Examples

Answer 54

Chatbots = learn how to answer questions based on interactions they have with public Microsoft Tay; input data taken from twitter conversations which was mainly racist, misogynistic individuals

Question 55

AI Bias: Sample

Answer 55

Data used to build AI is not representative of space within which the model will operate E.g. Google Photo Disaster

Question 56

AI Bias: Input Selection

Answer 56

# Choose factors as inputs which are biased. In case of risk prediction algo's, often lead to minority populations being disadvantaged. E.g. Allegheny County Algorithm

Question 57

AI; Options to solve issues

Answer 57

1. Human in the loop 2. Right to an explanation 3. Choice to not be subject to an algo

Question 58

Independent Reasons

Answer 58

Reasons that provide evidence on their own`

Question 59

Dependent reasons

Answer 59

Reasons that only provide evidence when taken together

Question 60

Enthymemes

Answer 60

Arguments with unstated premises

Question 61

Rhetorical Devices

Answer 61

Sometimes premises or conclusions are presented as questions or commands