Final exam notes

Question 1

Valid v Invalid Arguments

Answer 1

Valid: an argument is valid if and only if it is necessary that if all of the premises are true, then the conclusion is true; if all the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true; it is impossible that all the premises are true and the conclusion is false.

Invalid: an argument that is not valid. We can test for invalidity by assuming that all the premises are true and seeing whether it is still possible for the conclusion to be false. If this is possible, the argument is invalid.

Question 2

Invalid example: Form

Answer 2

1) IF A, then B
2) B
3) Therefore A

E.g.

1) If my name is Will, I am 35 years old
2) I am 35 years old
3) Therefore my name is Will

Note: Could have different names other than Will via this argument so invalid.

Question 3

Method of Agreement: S & W

Answer 3

Strength: Allows us to find a common cause of the effect (sufficiency)

Weakness: Might be other common factors that arent known or that we havent noticed

Not good for non-dichotomous outcomes, where we cannot eliminate a factor altogether

Question 4

Method of Difference: S & W

Answer 4

Weakness: Not good for non-dichotomous outcomes, where we cannot eliminate a factor altogether

Question 5

Method of Residues S & W

Answer 5

Advantage: Allows you to identify the other cause via elimination of a known secondary cause of the effect

Weakness:
Not good for non-dichotomous outcomes, where we cannot eliminate a factor altogether

Question 6

Method of Concomitant Variation: S & W

Answer 6

Strength: It can be used in cases where we cannot
eliminate a factor altogether, and so cannot
apply the method of difference.

It tells us how certain factors are causally related, and can help us uncover the quantitative relationship between them.

Weakness:
The direction of causation may not always be
clear.

Question 7

Inductive generalisation:

Answer 7

Making universal claims based on specific instances

Issue:
So, the argument in favour of using induction is circular (it begs the question): it uses an inductive argument to
defend the use of an inductive argument.

The whole enterprise of induction rests on a circular
argument

Question 8

Hostility towards scientific criticism

Answer 8

Often pseudoscientists display hostility towards legitimate scientific criticism.

Scientific criticism a mechanism by which standards
are maintained in the scientific community.

Question 9

Rendering claims unfalsifiable

Answer 9

Pseudoscience: Often attempt to make their
claims unfalsifiable

Good science: Makes testable predictions.
Predictions that can show that the theory is false.

Question 10

Cherry picking data

Answer 10

Pseudscience: Relies heavily on anecdote, which we
know is not often representative of the overall trends or
effect. Or will manipulate data so as to ‘discover’ an
effect where in fact there is none.

Good science: Experiments are designed to look at a
complete set of data. We already know many ways we
try to ensure this happens, random sampling and
attempting to get rid of sampling and testing biases are
a few

Question 11

Failure to engage with scientific

community

Answer 11

Pseudoscience: Tend do be disconnected from these
processes and sometimes exist in echo chambers

Good science: publishes data in large peer reviewed
journals and present their research to broad audiences.