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TEST #1 Flashcards

1
Q

The Universe

A

Everything there is

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2
Q

The Big Bang Theory

A

Formed the Universe
Age (14ish billion years)
A big explosion where all matter started and the universe expanded out

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3
Q

The Red Shift

A

The doppler effect (sound or light that can be treated as waves, wavelength and frequency- if the sound producing thing is coming toward you, the frequency increases, away->decreases)

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4
Q

Cosmic Background Spectrum

A

Calculation of cosmic matter

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5
Q

Galaxies

A

Systems of stars
100 billion in the universe
Distance (100,000 to millions of light years)

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6
Q

Light year

A

How far light travels in a year

Light takes 8 minutes to get to the earth from the sun

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7
Q

What are the different shapes of galaxies?

A

Elliptical
Spiral
Irregular

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8
Q

Milky Way

A

(Our galaxy)
Spiral Shaped
100,000 light years
Disk shaped, thinner in the center

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9
Q

What is at the center of our solar system?

A

The sun

And then the rest is made up of planets, moons, comets, asteroids, interplanetary medium

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10
Q

Interplanetary medium

A

Atoms floating, but essential a vacuum

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11
Q

List the planets of our solar system in order.

A

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

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12
Q

What are considered the “innermost planets?”

A

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

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13
Q

What are some characteristics of “innermost planets?”

A

Inner, minor, terrestrial

High density

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14
Q

What are considered the “outermost planets?”

A

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

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15
Q

What are some characteristics of “outermost planets?”

A

Outer, major

Low density

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16
Q

What are some similarities between “innermost” and “outermost” planets?

A

All revolve around the sun in the same direction, elliptical orbits, pretty much same plane, all planets tend to rotate on their axis, many of them have moons

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17
Q

What are smaller bodies within our solar system?

A

dwarf planets, Ceres (asteroid belt), Trans Neptunian (outside of pluto), asteroids, meteorites (iron-fe-ni alloy, stoney-rocks, stoney-iron), comets (icy, highly elliptical) , gas and dust

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18
Q

The Nebular Hypothesis

A

Formed the Solar System
Spinning cloud of gas and dust
Then it condenses, small particles start attracting each other, and also the whole thing is spinning

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19
Q

Plate Tectonics

A

Theory that explains outermost phenomena of earth

earthquakes, mountain chains, volcanoes, deep-ocean trenches

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20
Q

Structure of the Earth

A

Inner core, outer core, mantle, crust

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21
Q

Inner core of the Earth

A

Solid iron and nickel

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22
Q

Outer core of the Earth

A

Liquid iron and nickel

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23
Q

Mantle of the Earth

A

Rocky, solid, high pressure and temperature, solid mantle can flow like putty or magma

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24
Q

Crust of the Earth

A

Oceanic (thinnest, under oceans) and continental (thicker)

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25
Q

What is the Lithosphere?

A

Crust
Part of the upper mantle is also in the lithosphere
100kmish thick
“sphere of rock”
Divided into plates that move (a lot of plate tectonic activity happens at these boundaries)

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26
Q

What is the Asthenosphere?

A

Mantle
“weak sphere”
Convection drives the movement of plates (enough flow to it, viscosity)

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27
Q

What are plates in Plate Tectonics composed of?

A

They are lithospheric plates

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28
Q

Divergent Plate Boundary

A

Plates pull apart
Hot mantle material below rises up
Solid mantle material as it rises, melts (magma)

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29
Q

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

A

Example of a divergent plate boundary
Magma chamber beneath the ridge
Builds oceanic crust constantly
Liquid rises and solidifies, igneous rock is formed; in this case, basalt

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30
Q

What type of rock is oceanic crust?

A

Basalt

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31
Q

What are examples of divergent plate boundary activity?

A

Oceanic-ridges, faults (earth is stretched), and earthquakes

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32
Q

What happens to continental crust at a divergent plate boundary?

A

Similar to oceanic, but volcanoes are formed.

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33
Q

Convergent Plate Boundary (oceanic under oceanic)

A

Subduction zone
Melting of down-going slab
Line of volcanic islands along subduction zone

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34
Q

What is the deepest oceanic under oceanic zone?

A

Mariana trench, not much sediment “sediment starved” (pacific plate under phillipine plate)

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35
Q

Convergent Plate Boundary (oceanic under continental)

A

Subduction zone
Oceanic plate is thinner and denser (always oceanic under continental)
Oceanic subduction, causes melting, water is released, magma rises, (crystallizes below surface) igneous rock formed or (magma surfaces) chain of volcanoes are formed

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36
Q

What are examples of oceanic under continental formations?

A

Cascades, Pacific northwest-St. Helens, the Andes

Beniat waldotty zone: earthquake zone

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37
Q

Convergent Plate Boundary (continental/continental collision)

A

Typically ocean is subducted away and ocean is stripped away and continents collide, tiny subduction of continental
Mountains and earthquakes

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38
Q

What are examples of continental collision formations?

A

India, Himalayas
India used to be south of Asia and then it eventually collided and formed a mountain range
Also Mt. Everest and the Tibetan Plateau

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39
Q

Transform Plate Boundary

A

Horizontal motion
Slides past one another
Earthquakes, no melting
No igneous activity

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40
Q

What are transform faults?

A

Offsets of divergent boundaries, boundaries want to be straight
(strike/slip fault)

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41
Q

At which boundaries can earthquakes occur?

A

All three

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42
Q

At which boundaries can mountains be created?

A

Divergent and convergent
Andes, Himilayans, Cascades=divergent
Convergent mountains under the ocean
Some transform

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43
Q

At which boundaries can volcanoes occur?

A

Divergent and convergent boundaries
Mt. veneer or Mt. Fiji
Divergent boundary volcanoes are under the ocean

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44
Q

James Hutton

A

father of modern geology, came up with uniformitarianism

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45
Q

Atoms

A

smallest part of an element that retains the properties of that element

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46
Q

What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?

A

nucleus, electrons, cloud or field

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47
Q

What is the nucleus of an atom composed of?

A

protons and neutrons

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48
Q

Charge of a proton

A

+1 charge, 1 amu

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49
Q

Charge of a neutron

A

+1 charge, 1 amu

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50
Q

Charge of an electron

A

-1 charge, 1/2000 amu

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51
Q

Isotope

A

two of the same atoms, the same atomic number, but different mass
Ex: Oxygen 16 (8 neutrons) , 17 (9 neutrons), 18 (10 neutrons)

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52
Q

When are electrons stable?

A

When they have a filled outer shell

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53
Q

Ionic Bonding

A

(no longer electrically neutral)
(+)=cation
(-)=anion
Opposite charges attract

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54
Q

Covalent Bonding

A

Electrons are shared

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55
Q

Metallic Bonding

A

“sea” of electrons

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56
Q

What is the most common type of bonding?

A

Ionic

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57
Q

What are the most common elements in the Earth’s crust and mantle?

A 
O -2 (most common)
Si +4
Al +3
Fe +2, +3
Ca +2
Na +1
K +1
Mg +2 (least common)
SiO2=quartz
“over sized apples feel cold not kinda mushy”
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58
Q

Anions

A

Larger than atoms (pick up electrons, cloud expands)

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59
Q

Cations

A

Smaller than atoms (give up electrons, cloud contracts)

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60
Q

(atomic number) Z=

A

of protons=# of electrons in an atom

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61
Q

Crystal Structure

A

Anions held together by smaller cations

Structure: anions with smaller cations in holes

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62
Q

Crystalline

A

Atoms are in a systematic, organized arrangement

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63
Q

Crystal Lattice

A

All directions indefinitely, 14 different kinds

Ex: halite (NaCl)

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64
Q

Amorphous

A

Atoms are randomly arranged

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65
Q

Mineral

A

Naturally occurring
Crystalline
Inorganically formed

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66
Q

Mineral examples

A 
Pyroxene Ca(Mg,Fe)Si206
Olivine (Mg,Fe),SiO4 OR Mg2-xFexSi04
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67
Q

Coupled Solid Solution

A

Ions maintain charge balance
Plagioclase ( to change one thing you have to change the other) (most common mineral in the earth’s crust
Mg and Fe are similar in radius (typically the same charge +2)

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68
Q

Mineral’s Properties

A

Crystal structure, color, streak, cleavage, luster, fracture, form, specific gravity, magnetism, etc.

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69
Q

Streak

A

Rub against streak plate

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70
Q

Luster

A

The appearance of light reflected from a mineral

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71
Q

Cleavage

A 
(how they break)
Micas, one direction of cleavage 
Some have two direction 90 degrees break planes
Some have two not at 90 degrees
3 at 90 degrees
3 not at 90 degrees (calcite)
4 (flourite)
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72
Q

Fracture

A

(no cleavage planes) (ex: quarts)

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73
Q

Specific gravity/density

A

Weight of mineral in water vs. weight of the mineral in air

74
Q

Strength of minerals in order

A
  1. Talc
  2. Gypsum
  3. Calcite
  4. Fluorite
  5. Apatitie
  6. Orthoclase
  7. Quartz
  8. Topaz
  9. Corundum
  10. Diamond
75
Q

Diamond and graphite are pure carbon

A

Diamond: transparent color, non-metallic luster, white streak, 10 hardness, 3.5 specific gravity, octahedra form, insulator of electricity
Strong bond!!

Graphite: black color, metallic luster, black streak, 1-2 hardness, 2.0 specific gravity, plates or flakes form, conductor of electricity
Weak bond!!

76
Q

Polymorphs

A

“many forms”

77
Q

What are the 8 minerals make up 92% of the crust?

A 
Plagioclase feldspars (39%)
Potassium feldspars (12%)
Quartz (12%)
Pyroxenes (11%)
Non-Silicates (8%)
78
Q

Native Elements

79
Q

Sulfides

A

S2-
Pyrite (fools gold), FeS2
Mine this and then purify

80
Q

Oxides

A

02-

Hematite, Fe3O2

81
Q

Hydroxides

A

OH-
Brucite
Mg(OH)2

82
Q

Halides

A

Cl-, F-
Halite, NaCl
Mined for salt

83
Q

Carbonates

A

CO2-

Calcite, CaCO3

84
Q

Sulfates

A

SO42-

Barite, BaSO4

85
Q

Phosphates

A

PO43-

Apatite (wit Cl and F)

86
Q

Silicates

A

SiO44-

MOST ABUNDANT GROUP OF MINERALS

87
Q

What are some things to remember about silicates?

A

Most important
Earth’s crust
Upper mantle
Si and O+ other elements

88
Q

What is the basic structural unit of silicates?

A

silica tetrahedron
Tetrahedral coordination, Isolated tetrahedra (share no corners), Double tetrahedra (share one corner), Ring structures, Chain structures, Sheet structure, Framework structure

89
Q

Petrology

A

Study of rocks

90
Q

Rock

A

Solid aggregate of minerals, any consolidated portion of the earth’s crust

91
Q

Stone

A

Economic or cultural

92
Q

Igneous rock

A

(fire rocks)
Molten rock
Magma if below surface of the earth, lava if above surface of the earth

93
Q

Sedimentary rock

A

(accumulation and lithification of unconsolidated mineral fragments)
Surface
Layered (beds, strata); stratified

94
Q

Metamorphic rock

A

(changed rock)
Alteration of pre-existing rock
Temperature and pressure
Chemical effects

95
Q

What are examples of igneous rocks?

A

basalt and granite

96
Q

Mineral Composition of Igneous Rocks

A

Ultramafic: olivine, pyroxenes
Mafic: pyroxenes, plagioclase (Ca-rich)
Intermediate: plagioclase (Ca, Na), Amphibole
Felsic: orthoclase, plagioclase (Na-rich), quartz

97
Q

Texture Composition of Igneous Rocks

A

Size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains
Size is Important in igneous rocks
Can you see the grains?
Yes= Phaneritic
No= Aphanitic
Porphyritic texture: two different grain sizes
Obsidian: glassy texture (usually dark colored)

98
Q

Cooling Rates on the Composition of Igneous Rocks

A

Plutonic/intrusive; slow cooling (phaneritic tendencies)
Volcanic/extrusive: fast cooling
Very fast cooling is the only way to make a glass, always extrusive, maybe under water
Porphyritic implies two cooling processes, large grains form under the surface but surfaces (aphanitic), or big grains under the surface and small grains are phaneritic

99
Q

Pyroclastic rocks

A 
“hot-broken”
Blown out of volcanoes
Solid when it hits the ground
Welded together
<0.25” fine=ash-called a tuff
0.25" to 2.0" - volcanic breccia
100
Q

What is the Original Question?

A

All rocks from the same “parent” magma (same source of the magma)
Different parent magmas (different magma sources)

101
Q

Bowens Reaction Series

A

A systematic sequence of minerals that crystallize from magmas
Continuous side and a discontinuous side

102
Q

Fractional Crystallization

A

Crystals removed from liquid
Cannot react
Composition of the system changes

103
Q

What are igneous rocks composed of?

A

Mafic and felsic material

104
Q

What are the steps of fractional crystallization?

A 
Start with Basalt
1st to crystallize are (ultra)mafic
–Olivine and Ca-Plagioclase
Remove these minerals:
Liquid enriched in felsic material
The more felsic liquid:
– Andesite
– Rhyolite (granite).
105
Q

How do you remove crystals?

A

Crystal Settling
– Common Mechanism
– Gravity

106
Q

Magmatic differentiation

A

N.L. Bowen early 1900s
Generate most of the igneous rocks from basalt
Basaltic liquid
Partially melt peridotite
If we crystalize a mafic rock, we get pyroxenes and plagioclase

107
Q

Peridotite

A

Phanoritic, coarse grain, ultramafic (Fe and Mg)-ferromagnesium, minerals are plagioclase (calcium rich)

108
Q

What are two minerals that are very critical?

A

Pyroxenes and olivines
Upper mantle is mostly olivine
And Abundant pyroxenes

109
Q

A range of temperatures is needed for melting (is demonstrated by what?)

A 
BOWENS REACTION SERIES
Olivine (highest temperature)- first to crystallize
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite mica
110
Q

Bowen’s Hypotheses

A 
Start with basalt
Liquid evolves
Fractional crystallization
Intermediate and felsic 
(experimental and field science supports this)
111
Q

What are problems with Bowen’s Hypotheses?

A 
Huge masses of granite 
Where is the basalt?
Melting of more felsic matherials
Evolutionary processing 
Assimilation, country rock and magma
112
Q

What are occurrences of igneous rocks?

A

Extursive, aphenetic

Intrusive, plutonic

113
Q

How are extrusive rocks formed?

A

Volcanic activity (eruptions of mafic, felsic, or intermediate material)

114
Q

What is the shape of volcanoes in Hawaii?

A

Flat

due to basaltic, mafic lava

115
Q

What is the shape of volcanoes in the Cascades?

A

Tall

due to viscous lava

116
Q

Viscosity

A

lava’s resistance to flow

higher the viscosity, slower the flow

117
Q

What is mafic viscosity?

A

fluid, flows fast

118
Q

What is felsic viscosity?

A

viscous, flow slow

119
Q

What causes a difference in viscosity?

A

The SiO2 content
Tetrahedra hook up together, higher the silica content, higher viscosity
Mafic are hotter

120
Q

What are mafic/balsaltic eruptions like?

A

Usually non-violent, lava flows easily, spreads out and flows long distances
Fissure eruptions
Build thick sequences of thin layers

121
Q

What are some examples of results from mafic/balsaltic eruptions?

A 
Flood basalts 
Very large volumes
Columbia river (50,000mi2)
Deccan traps, India
Ocean basins
Shield volcanoes (Hawaii)
122
Q

What are felsic or intermediate eruptions like?

A

Erupt explosively at times

Pyroclastic material

123
Q

What are some examples of results from felsic or intermediate eruptions?

A 
Stratovolcanoes (layered)
Due to subduction zones
Vesuvius
Ranier (ranier beer, cascades)
Fujiyama 
Kilamanjaro
124
Q

What are three types of volcanoes?

A

Shield (big)- under sea
Strato
Cinder (small)- more felsic

125
Q

How are intrusive/plutonic rocks formed?

A

Magma rises

126
Q

What is the composition of intrusive rocks?

A 
Any composition
Most large ones, felsic to intermediate
Rare mafic intrusions
Felsic rocks (more viscous) volatile rich
Less likely to reach the surface
127
Q

What is a batholith?

A 
Large intrusions
(a lot of the times intrusions overlap)
Occur at the surface
Cores of mountain chains 
Less dense than surrounding rock
128
Q

What are other intrusive forms?

A 
Stocks (like batholiths)
Smaller, <100mi2
Dike
Tabular, cut across layering
Sill 
Tabular, parallel to layering 
Dikes and sills can be any composition
Vary in size, great dike of Rhodesia
129
Q

How are igneous rocks influenced by plate tectonics?

A 
Mid-ocean ridge
(Spreading, solid mantle rises and melts- basaltic magma, drop in pressure, makes it melt, and the liquid will rise faster than the solid mantle then the magma rises and cools and solidifies)
Subduction zone
Water is introduced into the earth
Melts the mantle
Magmas rise (intrusive and extrusive)
130
Q

How can you determine the stability of rocks?

A

Most things that get to the surface are not stable

131
Q

What are the steps of forming sedimentary rocks?

A 
Weathering of preexisting material
Transport the material by wind, water, and glaciers
Deposition and burial
Lithification 
Source area
132
Q

Weathering

A

Disintegration and decomposition at or near the surface of the rock
Weather due change from initial environment than the surface

133
Q

Mechanical Weathering

A

break up pre-existing rock
No change chemically or mineralogically
Big things->smaller things

134
Q

Forms of Mechanical Weathering

A

frost wedging
heating and cooling
exfoliation
biological factors

135
Q

Frost Wedging

A

As rocks come to the surface there are small cracks and fractures that open up, any opening will provide water access, if water enters and freezes it expands and cracks the rock

136
Q

Heating and cooling

A

When the rock is heated it expands, when it cools it contracts (every time we heat a rock, stresses cause fracture)

137
Q

Exfoliation

A

Rocks break into sheets because of the release of pressure

138
Q

Biological factors

A

plants and animals decompose rocks

139
Q

Chemical Weathering

A

structures of minerals altered by adding or removing elements

140
Q

What typically aids chemical weathering?

141
Q

What are the three types of chemical weathering?

A

Solution, oxidation, and hydrolysis

142
Q

Solution

A

Soluble in water
Halite (salt dissolves in water)
Natural rain waters tend to be acidic with CO2 gas

143
Q

Oxidation

A 
Rust
4Fe+3O2=2Fe203
Chemical reaction, electrons are lost
Fe-Mg minerals (ferromagnesian minerals)
Olivines pyroxenes, biotite
Sulfides, such as FeS2
144
Q

Hydrolysis

A 
Reaction with water
Aided by acidic water
Ex: K-feldspar -> clay mineral as a weathering product (sediment)
Kaolinite
Clays from by hydrolysis
145
Q

How do chemical and mechanical weathering go together?

A

Mechanical weathering increases surface area
Spheroidal weathering: chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrock and results in the formation of concentric or spherical layers of highly decayed rock within weathered bedrock that is known as saprolite

146
Q

Which rocks weather more quickly?

A

Bowen’s Reaction Series
Higher temperatures, weather quickly
Goldich’s weathering series (chemical weathering)

147
Q

Soil horizons in order

A

O, A, E, B, C, Untethered parent material

148
Q

O horizon

A

loose and partly decayed organic matter (topsoil, true soil or “solum”)

149
Q

A horizon

A

mineral matter mixed with some humus

Soluble out; organic matter added

150
Q

E horizon

A

light colored mineral particles (zoon of eluviation and leaching)

151
Q

B horizon

A

accumulation of clay transported from above

accumulation

152
Q

C horizon

A

partially altered parent material

transitional

153
Q

Erosion

A

erosion after weathering

154
Q

Mass wasting

A

Slow movement: creep

Rapid movement: mudflows, landslides, slump, rockslide, earth, debris flow

155
Q

Creep

A

Slow motion of material down a hill, aided by expanding and contracting through freezing and thawing

156
Q

Deposition

A

Materials being transported ends up somewhere
Various environments of deposition
Then buried and lithified

157
Q

Sedimentary Processes

A

Weathering
Transport
Deposition
Litification

158
Q

Sedimentary rocks make up most of the Earth’s energy

A

Coal, oil, gas, uranium

159
Q

How much of the world is covered by sedimentary rocks?

160
Q

What are two kinds of sedimentary rocks?

A

detrital and chemical

161
Q

Detrital clastic

A

accumulations of size of particles

162
Q

quartz sandstrone

A

mostly quartz

163
Q

arkose

A

mostly feldspar-more prone to weathering than quartz

164
Q

greywacke

A

rock fragments, quartz, feldspar

165
Q

shale

A

clay sized minerals

166
Q

Chemical sediments

A

dissolving rocks, natural waters, organism, composition, dolostone, chert

167
Q

Evaporates

A

halite, gypsum, (left behind as water evaporates)

168
Q

What is the most abundant sediment rock?

A

Shale (70%)

clay minerals, hydrolysis of feldspars

169
Q

What is the percentage sandstone and limestone?

170
Q

What are the forms of transportation?

A

Water, stream

solution, suspension, moving along the bottom of the channel

171
Q

Deposition with continental factors

A 
Lakes and rivers
Flood plains
Alluvial fans
Sand dunes
Glacial deposit
172
Q

Deposition with marine factors

A 
Most sediment ends in the ocean
Zones- sediments accumulate
Shore zone
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Deep sea floor
173
Q

Litification

A

converted into solid rock (pressure and cementation)
cementation
(calcium carbonate, silicon dioxide, quartz)

174
Q

How do you turn sediments into sedimentary rock?

A

Diagenesis and lithification

175
Q

What are common precipitates?

A 
Calcium carbonate (calcite)
Silicon dioxide (quartz)
176
Q

For which of the following sediments does compaction play an important role?
Mud, Cobble, Gravel, or Sand?

177
Q

Sedimentary structure

A 
Strata or beds-bedding planes
Cross-bedding 
From a current flowing (water or wind)
Ripples, uneven surface
Graded beds (turbidity current, as energy drops, the largest particles settle first, in time smaller particles settle to produce graded bed)
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
178
Q

Fossils

A

remains or traces of prehistoric life
Shells, bones, footprints
Buried and lithified
Some sediments have fossils

179
Q

What are the ways that fossils are preserved?

A

Fossilized plant or animal parts
Impressions
Molds (filled in impression)
Thin carbon film

180
Q

When is preservation best?

A

When there is rapid burial and a presence of hard parts (shells or bones)

GEO 101 (19 decks)

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