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Personality Psychology > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is “s” Data?

A

S Data is self-reported data. It is usually in the form of surveys and it is easy, but the downside is that participants won’t always tell the truth.

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2
Q

What is “I” data?

A

I data is Informant data. It is when a researcher asks another person about their subject. You can get lots of info from it and have multiple sources, but there is limited access, error, and bias.

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3
Q

What is “L” data?

A

L data is Life data. Life data includes records about your life or facts about your past. It is objective.

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4
Q

What is B data?

A

B data is Behavioral data. It is when you observe someone’s behavior to make a conclusion. It includes camera recording, implicit association test, and physiological data such as a dilating pupil

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5
Q

What is the Belmont Report?

A

The Belmont report was a response to unethical practices in psychology. It outlines principles of ethics: Respect, Beneficence and Justice

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6
Q

What is the Principle of Respect?

A

The Principle of Respect is part of the Belmont report. It means a researcher must used informed consent and must NOT be coercive, especially when using vulnerable populations, such as children or prisoners.

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7
Q

What is the Principle of Beneficence?

A

The Principle of Beneficence is a part of the Belmont Report. All professionals have the foundational moral imperative of doing right. It means that researchers must not put undo harm or risk that would outweigh benefits to participants. It also means that participants should remain anonymous and confidential, because the identities being public could cause harm. It also means a researcher must return their participants the same or better as they came in.

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8
Q

What is the Principle of Justice?

A

The Principle Justice is a part of the Belmont Report. It means that their must be fairness between who pays the cost for the study and who gains the benefits of it. An example of a breach of this principle is an experiment in which treatment is denied to a group, but then they never get the cure and so they just suffer with no benefit.

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9
Q

What is Deception?

A

Deception is when you must deceive participants for an experiment. It is OK, but you MUST debrief after and explain to the participants why you lied. Then, they must give informed consent to use their data after the debriefing.

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10
Q

What is the Institutional Review Board?

A

The institutional Review Board is a board comprised of community members and scientists who set a minimal standard for ethics. They decide whether a protocol is ethical or not. They take legal responsibility.

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11
Q

What is a case study?

A

A case study is a study in which a researcher intensely measures one thing, such as everything you can about one person. Its advantages are that it mirrors goal of personality psychology (to understand a whole person), it is generative, and you can falsify a generalized claim with one person who disproves it. The disadvantage is that findings don’t have generalizability.

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12
Q

What is a Correlational Study?

A

A correlational study is one which studies many individual and decides if two variables x and y are correlated to establish an association. It can be longitudinal. It is naturalistic and practical, but cannot determine causality.

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13
Q

What is an Experimental Study?

A

An experimental study requires manipulations and random assignment. The advantages are that it can determine causality, and is controllable. The disadvantage is that it is difficult- there must not be any confounding variables. It is also artificial because it is in a lab, and therefore unnatural.

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14
Q

What are ways to create a valid survey?

A

The Rational Method, Empirical Method, and Factor Analytic

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15
Q

What is the Rational Method?

A

The Rational Method is a way to create a valid survey. Basically, a human considers what would be theoretically good/effective questions to ask.

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16
Q

What are ways to evaluate the quality of data?

A

Reliability and Validity evaluate the quality of data.

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17
Q

What is reliability?

A

Reliability refers to how consistent the results of a study are or the consistent results of a measuring test. How RELIABLE is it that you’ll get those results?
For example, in Phrenology, it is reliable because you are indeed measuring head shape every time, not neck shape. But, that is not valid, because it doesn’t measure what you want to measure (Personality).

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18
Q

What are influencers of reliability?

A

Influencers of reliability include: standardized procedures, aggregation (averaging measurements, most powerful), mistakes, participants, experimenters, and environments.

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19
Q

What are the types of Validity?

A

The types of Validity are: construct, (face, criterion, convergent, discriminant, external), and Statistical validity.

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20
Q

What is Construct Validity?

A

Construct validity means: are you measuring what you think you’re measuring?

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21
Q

What is convergent validity?

A

Convergent validity asks: is it related to things it should be related to? (reverse of discriminant validity)

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22
Q

What is discriminant validity?

A

Discriminant validity checks that the data is not related to things that it shouldn’t be related to, so that you’re not accidentally testing for something else such as shoe size when studying happiness. (reverse of convergent validity)

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23
Q

What is external validity?

A

External Validity is also called “Generalizability”- it means that if you’re only testing a certain population, you should

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24
Q

What is face validity?

A

Face validity asks: does your measure LOOK like it’s measuring what you’re trying to measure (minimally sufficient)

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25
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

Criterion validity asks: does what I’m measuring PREDICT in the future or simultaneously, what it should predict?

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26
Q

What is the Empirical Method?

A

In the Empirical Method, a computer analyzes info and decides what responses correlate to what answers

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27
Q

What is Factor Analytic (Method)?

A

Factor Analytic combines the rational method and the empirical method, so it is very effective. A human considers what questions are theoretically relevant and a computer picks questions that correlate

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28
Q 
What is NOT used to assess construct validity?
A. test-retest validity
B. Face Validity
C. Criterion Validity
D. Divergent Validity
A

A. Test-retest validity

B. Face Validity- does it logically look like it’s testing what it’s supposed to? (weak)
C. Criterion Validity- does it relate to another already established test?
D. Divergent Validity- measuring only what you want to be measuring and nothing else.

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29
Q

What is statistical validity?

A

Statistical Validity is the extent to which the conclusions drawn from a statistical test are accurate and reliable.

30
Q

What is statistical power?

A

The probability that I say something is true when it actually is true.

31
Q

What does 80% Best Practice mean?

A

80% Best Practice means that the researcher has an 80% chance of detecting the effect if it exists.
However, in psychology, there is actually 44% statistical power currently which is HALF of the gold standard. Needs improvement!

32
Q

What is type 1 error?

A

Type 1 error occurs when you conclude that something is true but it is actually false. Also called a FALSE POSITIVE. Akin to falsely convicting an innocent person.

33
Q

What is type 2 error?

A

Type 2 error occurs when you say something is false, but it is true. Akin to failing to (reject the null hypothesis) convict someone who is guilty.

34
Q

How can you improve statistical power?

A

You can increase sample size and increase reliability. However, increased sample size does not necessarily mean it is more representative. To increase reliability, you must reduce “noise” from other variables to hone in on the effect you care about… if it exists.

35
Q

What is a Correct Rejection?

A

Correct Rejection occurs when you are correct for rejecting it! You say something is false and it is indeed false.

36
Q

What is a false positive?

A

A false positive is a type 1 error. It is when you say something is true but it is actually false.

37
Q

How likely is a researcher to falsely claim an effect is real?

A

There is only a 5% chance of claiming it’s true in Best Practice/Gold standard, 95% chance of correct rejection. Then 5% of the effects reported in psychology would be untrue (Type 1). In practice, just found out that 25% of findings in psychology are false positives.

38
Q

What does the “Garden of Branching Paths” mean?

A

“Garden of Branching Paths” refers to all the little decisions you have to make to test something “who will I sample? How will I test?” etc.
Problem occurs when you make those decisions based on whether or not the evidence supported your claim.

39
Q

What does “Selective Reporting Studies” mean?

A

“Selective Reporting Studies” occurs when researchers hide evidence and only report experiments that showed the effect, because that was how to get published as journalism didn’t used to care about correct rejections. Researchers would make excuses such as “I was a new researcher and didn’t conduct that one well”, to justify excluding contrary evidence.

40
Q

What does “Selective Reporting Analyses” mean?

A

“Selective Reporting Analyses” refers to when a researcher only reports the analyses methods that worked. This error can happen because it is easy to convince ourselves why we didn’t see evidence and so disregard that analyses method.

41
Q

What does “Selective Reporting Variables” mean?

A

“Selective Reporting Variables” refers to when you only report variables that showed the effect and none of the ones that didn’t, such as if you measure conscientiousness with certain tests and only report the tests that show the effect.

42
Q

What does “Selective Sampling” mean?

A

Selective Sampling refers to choosing to sample only as many people as supports your claim, when less or more may not.

43
Q

How can we reduce selective reporting?

A

Selective reporting is an issue that can be reduced by forcing researchers to commit to their methods BEFORE experimenting

44
Q

What is Pearson’s r?

A

Pearson’s r is a predominant statistic for effect size that is mostly used in personality psychology because most research is correlational.

45
Q

What are ways to view effect size r?

A

Ways to view effect size r include:

Graphical- dots on a graph, doesn’t have much shape, hard to understand visually, looks like a cloud

Binomial Effect Size display (BESD)- if no correlation, then equal distribution across display

46
Q

What is the range of effect size r?

A

The range of effect size r is -1 to 1

47
Q

What does r=0 mean?

A

r=0 means there is no effect

48
Q

How do you calculate BESD?

A

Step 1: Multiply by 100

Step 2: Divide by 2

Step 3: Add/subtract from 4 cells

1) R=.3 .3 * 100 = 30

2) 30/2 = 15
3) Add/subtract

49
Q

Describe the Binomial Effect Size Display (BESD)

A
  1. start with n/4 evenly in each sell. If n=200, then 50 in each cell would be like the null hypothesis.
  2. Low & High are on each size, representing variation in variables. So low and high on the side could be conscientiousness expression, and low and high on the top could be grades.
  3. Using r=x, calculate BESD following instructions.
    The numbers in the cells will make an X pattern,
    35 | 65
    65 | 35 = pattern of positive correlation, negative would look opposite
50
Q

What is the correlational research design?

A

-by default, consider it as association not causation- which is a weakne

51
Q

How are Individual Differences a part of trait approach?

A

Trait approach is all about individual differences.
There are many ways that people are alike such as their needs, but also ways they are different such as income.
Trait approach tries to quantify the dimensions of individual differences. Tries to capture how an individual is different from others.

52
Q

What are some intuitions within trait approach, part of the Person-Situation Debate?

A
  1. people are inconsistent

2. Situations are important aspect of predicting one’s behavior

53
Q

What is the Person-Situation Debate?

A

The person-situation debate asks whether one’s personality or situation is more important in determining behavior. It is a ~20 yr long debate

If the situation is so important, what about personality?

People might decide that: Traits don’t matter, or Traits matter too.

54
Q

What is the Situationist Perspective?

A

In the 1960s, Walter Mischel’s book, “Personality and Assessment”, argued that people’s personality are so inconsistent that personality is not a useful psychological construct.

  1. Personality is poor at predicting behavior
  2. Therefore, situations are more important predictors to measure
  3. Therefore, Personality assessment is a waste of time
55
Q

What are the claims of the Situationist perspective?

A
  1. Personality is a poor indicator
    -evidence came from “b” data from a lab
    -assessed: self-control, attitudes toward authority (fluctuate & can be changed), lying & cheating-behavior changed by the day
    -correlation between personality and behavior has an upper limit of r > .4, which is too small.
    Rebuttal: Unfair review, we can do better, .4 is just the highest we’ve seen SO FAR. AND, .4 isn’t small, it is BIG! That;s like 70% of the time!
  2. Situation is more predictive
    - experiments on obedience & helping
    - Upper limit = r < .4

Obedience – see how situational features impacts how someone obeys

Helping – i.e. bystander effect (more people around you, less likely to help)

Rebuttal: Any behavior can be more effected by situation OR personality traits. Both are relevant. Examples:
Time speaking, Smiling/Laughing, Nods, “You” words, Body Posture
Behaviours are complex and some that we simply have no ability to say why someone does something

56
Q

What is Lewin’s formula?

A

Lewin’s formula is a part of the second claim of the Situationist perspective, that situation is more predictive than personality.

Behavior = function of personality & Situation

  • inappropriately interpreted as B = P + S
  • thought that 1.0 = .4+ .6
  • incorrect
  • actual evidence needed
  • more complicated
57
Q

Why care about personality/ What can personality predict?

A

Personality is important because it can predict:

  • Substance Abuse/Addiction
  • Lifespan
  • Criminality
  • GPA
  • Voting choices
58
Q

What are the trait approaches?

A

There are 4 trait approaches:

  1. Single Trait Approach
  2. Many Trait Approach
  3. Essential Trait Approach
  4. Typological Approach
59
Q

What is the Single Trait Approach?

A

The Single Trait Approach emphasizes one trait, studying consequences & patterns of feeling of that trait.

60
Q

What are examples of the Single Trait Approach?

A
  1. Trait: narcissism (people who tend to be more narcissistic than others)
    Ask: What do people who are narcissistic do/feel?
    -Resulting behaviour/outcomes (found in “S” data) = talkative, argumentative,
    selfies, poor academics, have more people around them

Trait: disgust sensitivity (how squeamish people are when they encounter something
disgusting)
-Resulting behaviour/outcomes – political ideology, LGBT attitudes, fear of death,
anxiety

61
Q

What is the Many Trait Approach?

A

In the Many Trait Approach, you use all of the traits to predict an outcome that you care about

  • resource intensive
  • risk for type 1 errors
62
Q

What are examples of the Many Trait Approach?

A

Behaviour/outcomes: Depression in women
Ask: What are all the traits that impact depression in women?
-Traits: shy/reserved, over socialized, over controlled, self-punishing
-Behaviour/outcomes: Depression in men
Ask: What are all the traits that impact depression in men?
-Traits: aggressive, unsocialized, under controlled
(Should be worried about Type 1 error in approaches such as this)

Behaviour/outcomes: political orientation
-Conservative traits: feel guilty, anxious in unpredictable situations, can’t handle stress
-Liberal traits: resourceful, independent, confident
Ask: How liberal/conservative were the people who created this test?
-More psychologists tend to be more liberal (which could explain why so many positive traits were associated with liberal)

-traits (values that predict): harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, in-group loyalty,
purity, authority

-fairness/reciprocity and harm/care are universally adopted by liberal AND
conservative
-loyalty, purity, and authority = conservative

63
Q

What is the Essential Trait Approach?

A

The Essential Trait Approach focuses on the core & potent traits that you care about, it is a smaller subset of many trait approach

64
Q

What is the Typological Approach?

A

The typological approach focuses on types & placing people into categories

For example, Type A and type B people.

65
Q

What are examples of the Essential Trait Approach?

A

The Essential Trait Approach is backed by the Lexical Hypothesis, which states:
If the trait is important, it should manifest itself into the language of the culture.
-people pulled out trait words from the dictionary and distilled them into the most essential traits.
THE BIG 5
-good for clarity & efficiency

66
Q

What are examples of the Typological Approach?

A

Examples of the Typological Approach include:

  • Myers-briggs – tells you what type of person you are (this or that)
  • True Colours
  • Type A vs. Type B

Evidence shows that these types of approaches can’t predict behavior or outcomes
-Not any better than trait definitions

67
Q

What are some behaviors associated with extraversion?

A 
People who are more extraverted tend to…
o Drink hard liquor
o Tell a dirty joke
o Exercise program
o Cheer at sport events
o Tried to tan
o Talk about sex

Extraversion Facets: Sociability, Assertiveness, Energy Level

68
Q

What are some behaviors associated with Agreeableness?

A 
People who tend to be agreeableness tend to
o Sing in car/shower
o Play with kids
o Iron clothes
o Wash dishes
o Don’t tease

Agreeableness Facets: compassion, respectfulness, trust

69
Q

What are some behaviors associated with Conscientiousness?

A 
People who tend to be conscientious tend to…
o NOT daydream
o Bland food
o Don’t incur late fees
o Don’t procrastinate
o Wake up early
o Good grades

Conscientiousness Facets: organization, productiveness, responsibility

70
Q

What are some behaviors associated with Negative Emotionality?

A 
People who tend to have negative emotionality are more likely to…
o Take sleeping pills
o Lose temper
o Have nightmares
o Go on diets
o Take depression meds

Negative emotionality Facets: anxiety, depression, emotional volatility

71
Q

What are some behaviors associated with Open-mindedness?

A 
People who have open-mindedness tend to…
o Meditate
o DIY stuff
o Buy organic
o Read books/poetry
o Go to opera
o Swear around others
o Shoot guns

Open-mindedness: intellectual curiosity, aesthetic sensitivity, creative imagination

Personality Psychology (3 decks)

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