Test #1 Flashcards
Disparity
Sentencing laws may disproporionately impact minoriteis. Example: 100:1 disparity in sentencing for crack cocaine vs p owder cocaine
Spiritual Explanations of Crime
earliest theories of crime/devience tended to focus on supernatural causes or religous factors. Most focused on assumption that criminals/deviants were possessed ****
Spiritual Ways of Dealing with Crimes
Exorcism Primitive Surge ry (open skull so evil spirits can leave), burning at the stake, torture
Enlightenment
was an 18th century philosophical movement in Europe that stressed the importance of reason and the critical reappraisal of existing ideas and social institutions (LATE 17th CENTURY-MID 18th CENTURY) Key Contribution: humans are rationals-they make decisions based on what is best for them.
Social Contract
• Thomas Hobbes 1651 and was elaborated upon by other philosophers (Locke and Rousseau)
• An Agreement b/t the gov’t and the people, defining and limiting the right and duties of each
o That gives the gov’t power
• Thomas Hobbes 1651 and was elaborated upon by other philosophers (Locke and Rousseau)
• An Agreement b/t the gov’t and the people, defining and limiting the right and duties of each
o That gives the gov’t power
Thomas Hobbes
Social Contract
How did the social contract come to be?
- Humans are selfish and greedy, thus people live in a constant fear of everyone else
- Humans are rational and thus realized that it was better to give up some freedoms to form states and governments to avoid this constant state of fear
How does the Social Contract work?
• Everyone sacrifices the least possible portion of their freedom in exchange for safety and being able to live in peace and the sum of all these portions of freedoms given up by the citizenry is the right of the government to have laws and punish law breakers
When did the Positive School of Criminology take off?
Took off in the mid-1800s with the rise of science and the scientific method. Systematic Observations
Positive School of Criminology theories:
- Human Nature is Naturally good or a “blank slate”
- Human Behavior is “deterministic”
What is Determinism?
Determinism is the assumption that most human behavior is determined beyond free will and free choice. Attributed to biological, psychological, and sociological factors which cause people to act in a certain way.
What did early Determinism theories focus on?
Early theories of determinism focused on biological and psychological theories of crime:
• Based on the notion that certain individuals offend more than others
• And that these “inferior” individuals should be controlled or even eliminated
• Theories fit Eugenics movement that began around this period and lasted well into the 20th century
What is Eugenics?
Eugenics is the study of policies related to the improvement of the human race via control over reproduction
• I.e. sterilization of defective individuals
o Nazis- of homosexuals
o US- of mentally handicap
What is Craniometry?
Craniometry is the field of study that believed the size of the brain or skull represented the superiority or inferiority of certain individuals or racial/ethnic groups
How were the early studies of Craniometry?
Early studies of Craniometry were poorly designed and biased and tended to support views that white/western people were superior, but as research improved early findings were debunked showing there is no correlation b/t brain/skull size and criminality.
What is Phrenology?
Phrenology is the science of determining human dispositions based on distinctions (like bumps) on the skull. Some thought the shape of the skull conformed to the shape of the brain; bumps were indicators of brain deformities. Didn’t get much research supports because bumps, etc. have little to nothing to do with the shape of the brain.
What is Physiogromy?
Physiogromy is the study of facial structure and other body characteristics to indicate developmental problems such as criminality.
What were the problems with the early theories of Physiogromy?
The early theories of physiogromy were mostly biased
• Designed to portray certain racial/ethnic groups inferior
• Research didn’t support the early theories
Why did the field continue to be dominated by biological explanations of crime into the early 20th century?
• 1859 Charles Darwin- Origins of Species
o Survival of the fittest
o Theory of evolution continue to justify exploring hereditary biological and psychological/determinants of human behavior- including criminality
What happened in 1859 that affected the field of criminology?
In 1859 Charles Darwin’s Origins of Species came out. This helped maintain focus of biological explanations of crime until the early 20th century.
What do free societies depend on?
Free socities depend on faith that the other person will behave decently.
What are some possible explanations for the link b/t low IQ and crime?
- Low IQ often le ads to failure and frustration
- Lack of foresight associated w/ low IQ
- They don’t understand why something is wrong
The Size of the IQ Gap:
- Incarcerated offenders average an IQ=92, 8 points below the general population
- Chronic offenders have an even lower IQ average
What was the 1876 theory of the Born Criminal?
In 1876 Cesare Lombroso published his theory of the “born criminal”. Certain people are “born criminal” and it is possible to identify them through a variety of physical characteristics
• Crime is committed by those who failed to evolve like the rest of us (Atavistic)
• To test his theory Lombroso studied many more people (dead and alive)
• He concluded criminals could be identified by specific physical traits
What are Stigmata?
Stigmata are physical manifestations of the atavism of an individual which indicate a prior evolutionary stage of development. Having more than 5 stigmata indicated an individual is atavistic and will inevitably be a born criminal. I.e. Fleshy lips, large jaws etc. etc.
What are the theories of IQ and Crime?
- The early spiritual explanation: the dull-witted are possessed by the devil and forced into exile
- Early naturalistic explanation: its hereditary (Darwin)
Who is Alfred Benet and what is his significance?
Alfred Benet invented the IQ TEST in the early 1900s, with it some simple theories emerged that attempted to explain crime through low intelligence.
Who was HH Goddard and what were his contributions?
HH Goddard was an American psychologist and eugenicist in the early 20th century. He explained that societal problems were caused by _feeblemindedness. _
How did HH Goddard classify the feebleminded?
HH Goddard classified the feebleminded into three categories.
- Moron- caused all the problems
- Imbeciles
- Idiots- the most feebleminded-you don’t have to worry about the they have trouble doing basic tasks
What are some policy implications caused by HH Goddard’s theory?
• Deportation of immigrants for “mental deficiency”
• Sterilization of people with low intelligence
o Buck v Bell (1927)- “3 generations of imbeciles is enough”
o The sterilization of the feebleminded wasn’t ruled unconstitutional until the 1970s
How is HH Goddard’s research viewed today?
HH Goddard’s research fell out of favor because of the controversial policies that emerged from it but research today still tends to find some correlation b/t IQ and criminality but it’s unclear if the relationship is a causal relation
What did Travis Hischi and Michael Hindelang find?
Hischi and Hindelang found that among youth of the same race and social class, intelligence was a significant predictor of delinquency and criminality.
What are some verbal IQ findings?
Recent studies found that having a low verbal IQ significantly impacted delinquent and criminal behavior.
What are Cytogenetic Studies?
Cytogenetic Studies focus on the genetic makeup of individuals with a specific focus on chromosomes. Like abnormalities.
What do Cytogenetic Studies focus on?
Cytogenetic Studies focus on largely on XYY males. XXY males are more likely to have behavioral disorders, recent studies focus on how the extra Y chromosome is tied to aggressive behavior and possibly criminality.
Why do we research hormones and neurotransmitters?
There is an idea that abnormal levels of hormones or neurotransmitters can influence behavior.
What does the Hormonal Research focus on?
• Hormonal research focuses on testosterone
o High level may “masculinize” the brain
o Push people towards aggressive behavior
What are Neurotransmitters?
Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain and body that help transmit electrical signals across neurons.
What is Dopamine?
Dopamine is responsible for the feeling of pleasure
• It is part of the body’s natural reward system
• It affects the ability to respond to “cues” in the environment
o I.e. drive fight or flight responses
• Over-production is related to psychotic, antisocial behavior and violence
What is Serotonin?
Serotonin regulates the ability to process emotions and control certain behaviors including aggression. Studies find low levels of serotonin are associated with:
• Depression
• Suicide
• Agression
• Violent & Criminal behavior
What does brain injury have to do with criminality?
If the brain areas responsible for higher-level functioning like problem solving, communication, impulse control, etc. are damaged one may be more likely to act on emotions and take risks especially temporal and frontal lobe.
What is the CNS?
CNS is the Central Nervous System- brain and spinal column- responsible for our voluntary motor activity.
What are some findings of the research on CNS?
Research on the Central Nervous System uses brain imaging and brain wave studies. We found that Psychopaths tend to have slower brain wave patterns.
What is the ANS?
ANS is the Autonomic Nervous System responsible for involuntary functions such as breathing and your heart beat.
What are some findings of the research on ANS?
People with low Autonomic Nervous System functioning are more likely to commit crime
• Perhaps because they are under stimulated but this has not been proven.
Nature vs. Nurture: Nature
People on the side of Nature argue that a person’s genetic makeup has the largest impact on behavior
