Terms Flashcards
Section 1
Propositions
Statements that can be True or False
Non-Propositions
Are NOT statements about matters of fact. They do not make a claim that can be True or False.
Simple Propositions
Have no internal structure, meaning whether they are True or False does not depend on whether a part of them is True or False on their own.
Complex Propositions
Have internal logical structure, composed of simple propositions. Whether complex propositions are True or False depends on whether their parts are True or False, and how those parts are connected
Premise
A premise is a proposition lending support to the conclusion. Premises are supposed to be statements that, if you accept they are true, give you reason to believe that the conclusion is also true.
Logical Relationship
If you think the premises are True, and the argument is well formed, you should also think that the Conclusion is True
Argument
An argument is a set of statements, some of which (the premises) attempt to provide a reason for thinking that some other statement (the conclusion) is True
Inference or Argument
Is any purportedly rational movement from Premises to a Conclusion.
“I believe x, because y, z, and w” OR
“Because a, b and c, we have to believe that d”
Deductive Arguments
If the premises are True and the argumentive structure is good, then the conclusion must be True.
(Includes mathematical arguments, like proof, logical arguments, arguments from definition, and so forth)
Inductive Arguments
If the argumentative structure is great, the Truth of the premises only makes the conclusion probably true at best.
(Includes arguments from analogy, qualified authority, casual inferences, scientific hypothetical reasoning, extrapolations from samples, and so on.)
Inference to the best explanation/abduction
Arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation.
Truth
Truth is a property of propositions. Only propositions can be true/false.
Deductive Argumentative
Deductive Argumentative structures are either valid/invalid.
Inductive Argumentative
An Invalid argument structure is one where the truth of the premises is meant to guarantee the truth of the conclusion, but fails to do so.
Valid Argument
A Valid Argument structure is where the truth of the premises would guarantee the truth of the conclusion. “if” the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily.
*It is impossible for the premises of a valid argument to be true and the conclusion False.
Soundness
Soundness is about both structure and truth.
Must have good structure and true premises to make a sound argument.
*A Deductive argument is sound if it has a valid structure and all its premises are true.
Deductive Reasoning
Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.
Cogent “Sound”
Cogent means all true premises, and the premises give strong inductive support for the conclusion
Formal
Structure of Things
Formal Fallacy
An Argument that has a flawed structure. Identified by analyzing the structure of an argument/ignoring its content.
Informal Fallacy
The structure of your argument is not what is at issue. Instead, someone takes exception to the content of your argument
The Fallacy Fallacy
The Fallacy Fallacy happens when someone uses the fact that a fallacy was committed to justify rejecting the conclusion of the fallacious argument. (Avoid this sort of thing)
Exhibiting a Bias
Even if the evidence does not fully support a particular conclusion, a person may be inclined to believe a particular conclusion over the others.
Biases
Biases can come from particular situations, like your experiences, desires, and emotions.
Principle of Charity
Be careful not to assume that someone else’s beliefs is due to bias. Interpret another’s reasoning in multiple ways and in possible light.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to look for and favor evidence that confirms our ideas while avoiding or ignoring evidence to the contrary
*More confident than correct
Cognitive Biases
Quirks about the way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us.
- Jumping to conclusions
Alief
An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs
Heuristic
Heuristic means a rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut.
- There is no promise that it is going to work all of the time. It just needs to work well enough to get you through life.
- Rather than spend all the time and energy it takes to make the best decision, we can use a heuristic to make a pretty good decision
- Jumping to Conclusions
Bounded Rationality
Dominate behavioral economics is called “bounded rationality”.
- We make the best decisions we can, with what we have
Availability Heuristic
A mental shortcut relying on psychology salient or easily imagined examples rather than actual odds or factual information
Algorithm Bubble
The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on
Self Selection
Self selection bias happens when the sample we generalize from is not representative of the total population in some important respect
Representativeness Heuristic
Makes people judge a situation by means of situations in memories that bear similarities to it, even if those similarities are not really relevant.
- Look for carefully conducted scientific studies or larger sets of data when available.
Anchoring Bias
Causes people to put too much weight on the first information received when making further decisions.
- Get larger sets of more objective data and don’t rely on personal anchors
Availability Bias
Causes people to make judgements based on whichever examples come most readily to mind
System 1 Thinking
Quick, Automatic, and Emotional
System 2 Thinking
Deliberate, Effortful, and Calculating
Circular Reasoning Fallacy
When one’s conclusion is supported by a premise that is identical to the conclusion.
‘Ending where it started’
Ad Hominem Fallacy
Ad Hominem Fallacy occurs when someone attacks the arguer instead of the argument itself.
“Against the Person”
Genetic Fallacy
Sometimes lumped in with Ad Hominem Fallacies. Genetic Fallacy occurs when an arguer critiques the origin of a claim/argument rather than the claim/argument itself.
- Role beliefs play
- The origin of an idea has nothing inherently to do w/ its truth or plausibility
Straw Figure/Straw Man Fallacy
Happens when someone (willfully/mistakenly) misinterprets someone else’s argument or position. Irrelevant!
Red Herring
Not staying on topic. Intentionally/Unintentionally change the subject to avoid the real issue at hand
Equivocation
Equivocation can only be identified by understanding the meanings of the words involved. (Two different meanings)
Fallacy of Equivocation
We draw our own understanding of the meaning of words/understanding
- Star = Celestial Sphere vs. Star = Celebrity
Casual Slippery Slope Fallacy
Is committed when one event is said to lead to some other (disastrous) event via a chain of intermediary events
Slippery Slope Fallacy
Are always made up of a series of conjunctions of probabilistic conditional statements that link the first event to the last event
Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy
Happens when someone already knows which conclusion they’d like to prove and then selects evidence which supports that conclusion
Post Hoc
“After this, therefore because of this’
Just because something happens after another thing happens, doesn’t mean that the second thing is caused by the first thing.
X occured before Y, Therefore X caused Y OR
X happened after Y, Therefore Y caused X
Hasty Generalization
When one generalizes about a group of people, things, or events, but one does so too quickly and w/o evidence or w/ too small of a sample from that group.
