Terms Flashcards
Argumentation
Communicative process of advancing, supporting, criticizing, and modifying claims so that appropriate decision makers may grant or deny adherence.
Claim
A statement you want other to accept and act on.
Adherence
Informed support of others for a claim.
Appropriate Decision Makers
Those necessary for the ultimate implementation of an argumentative claim.
Proposition
A claim that expresses the judgment that decision makers are asked to accept or reject.
Support
Whatever communication is necessary and available to secure adherence/ what it takes to get others to accept and act on your claim.
Factual Claim
Can be observed and measured in the material world.
Value Claim
A subjective claim (best, worst, etc.) that asserts quality of something/ someone.
Policy Claim
Tells a person or agency how to behave.
Stasis Theory
Rhetorical method for coming up with appropriate arguments in determining the nature of a given situation. A question of fact, of definition, of quality, or of policy.
Fact: does the issue exist/is it real?
Definition: What is the meaning or nature of this matter?
Quality: Is it a serious concern? Who is affected? What are the costs?
Policy: What actions should be taken? What policies are needed to resolve the issue?
Ethos
appeals to credibility and ethics
builds a sense of trustworthiness, fairness, and respect
Pathos
appeals to emotions
invokes emotions like fear, pity, love, anger, etc.
Logos
appeals to logic
utilizes facts, statistics, testimony, examples, or narratives
Pathos 2
Strategy where a writer tries to generate specific emotions in an audience to get it to accept a claim.
Artistic Proof
Support for an argument based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence.
Inartistic Proof
Support for an argument using facts, statistics, eye witness testimony, or other evidence the author finds rather than creates.
Ethos 2
The self image a writer/speaker creates to define a relationship with readers/listeners. Most try to establish an ethos that suggests authority, fairness, and credibility.
Knowledge (Phronesis)
Ability to establish ones credibility based on their knowledge or wisdom on the topic (good sense).
Intention (Arete)
The morals or virtues behind your argument (good character).
Communication (Eunoia)
Building trust and goodwill with your audience (likeability).
Logos 2
Uses facts, evidence, and reason to convince an audience to accept a claim.
Logic
Formal study of reasoning.
Reason
Statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it.
Inductive Reasoning
Process of thought in which particular cases lead to general principles.
Deductive Reasoning
Process of thought in which general principles are applied to particular cases.
Degree
Arguments that use degree rely on reasoning that expresses the extent or level of an issue through comparison.
Analogies
Gives an argument and compares it to another to give a reference to help explain it.
Precedent
Rely on an earlier event as an example or guide to be considered in subsequent similar circumstances.
Good Reasoning
Reasons that are good enough to warrant adherence to a claim. May be a statement of fact or another claim (personal authority, power authority, moral obligation, social pressure).
Formal Logic
follows patterns of deductive logic
rules-based argumentation that codifies language
deals with form
Informal Logic
follows patterns of inductive logic
typically dialogic, mix of many forms of an argument
loose guidelines
deals with content
Syllogism
Structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed major and minor premises lead to a necessary conclusion.
Ethymeme
Syllogism with one term understood but not stated.
Fallacy
Flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect.
-Error in reasoning, not factual error
Rhetoric
All available means of persuasion.
Rhetorical Analysis
Critical reading of an “artifact” to understand and critique how they function.
Classical Orientation
hook, intro
context, background
preview
body, positive proofs
rebuttal, negative proofs
conclusion, call to action
Rogerian/Invitational Arguments
no need to persuade
understanding opposing positions
view both sides as valid
look for compromise and win-win solutions
The Toulmin Model
claim
grounds/data
warrant
backing
qualifiers
rebuttal/reservations
Visual Rhetoric
Use of visual elements to communicate meaning.
ethos - specific design elements
logos - help communicate relative importance of issues
pathos - colors and images elicit emotional responses
The medium is the message.
The form of a medium embeds itself in the message, creating a symbiotic relationship by which the medium influences how the message is perceived.
By Marshall McLuhan
Public Sphere
print, oral, physical
where private citizens gathered as a public body
rationality vs spectacle
Public Screen
takes tech seriously
important public discussions happening on screen
makes new forms of social participation and protest
Image Event
staged acts of protest designed for media dissemination.
Multimodal
Communication that uses more than one medium to convey the message.
post-truth
Era where people are more likely to take on info based on ethos and pathos rather than logos.
Objective facts are less influential
Developing a Factual Argument
- identify an issue
- research your hypothesis
- refine your claim
- decide which evidence to use
Academic Argument
The audience is well informed about the subject, clear and compelling point, somewhat formal style, and follows conventions of usage, punctuation, and format.
Developing the Argument
1. Choose a topic you want to explore in depth.
2. Familiarize yourself with the conversations happening around that topic.
3. Assess what you already know and what we need to learn
4. Develop a claim and take a rhetorical stance: Reporter, Critic, Advocate
5. Identify and consider your audience
6. Scrutinize your evidence: Summarize primary arguments, Analyze its importance, Evaluate the quality and credibility, Synthesize the results, Summarize the strengths + weaknesses
7. Set up a system of documentation
8. Develop an annotated bibliography (optional)
9. Establish a tone and style
10. Draft, feedback, edit, proofread
caveat
standard conventions for argumentation are changing, new modalities and formats are taking shape
abstract
brief summary of an article
Formal Definitions
dictionary definitions, the formal definition of a word. (denotative meaning)
suggestions or associations that surround most words, extending beyond literal meaning (connotative meaning)
Operational Definitions
identify an idea or object by what it does or what conditions create it.
Definitions by Example
establish whether something or someone belongs to a particular category.
Negative Definitions
attempt to define something by establishing what it’s not.
Argument of Evaluation
in which the claim specifies whether something meets the established criteria.
Developing the Argument
1. formulate criteria (essential qualities, specific, synthesized)
2. making claims (strong and specific, followed by reasonable qualifications)
3.presenting evidence (decide what is relevant, build strongest points)
Quantitative v. Qualitative
Quantitative: criteria can be measured, counted or demonstrated; hard evidence; more logos
Qualitative: criteria must be explained through language and media; narratives and constructions; more pathos ethos; draws on values, traditions, and emotions
Causal Argument
seeks to explain the effects of a cause, that causes of an effect, or a causal chain.
State a cause then examine it’s effects: In arguments about policy (predict the effects of passing legislation) Ex. gun regulation, Elon Musk taking over twitter.
State an effect then trace back to causes: see and phenomenon and ask why? Ex. high vaccine rates in indigenous populations.
Arguments that move through a series of links: relationships based on linked causal connections, Ex. poverty cycle
Developing a Causal Argument
1. Explore possible claims
2. Define causal relationships
3. Support your point
Sufficient Cause
enough for something to occur on its own
Necessary Cause
required for something to occur
Precipitating cause
brings on a change
proximate cause
immediately present or visible cause of action
remote cause
indirect or underlying explanation for action
reciprocal cause
one factor leads to a second, which reinforces the first.
Argument by Proposal
where the claim is made in favor or opposing a specific course of action; focus on policy or practice
-call for change
-focus on future
-center on the audience
“A should do B because of C.”
policy: more specific
practice: more broad
Format
1. Define a need or problem
2. Make a strong and clear claim
3. show that it addresses the need or problem
Rhetorical Situation
relationship among topic, author, audience, and other contexts that determines or evokes an appropriate response
Confirmation Bias
tendency to accept or agree with or search for information from sources that confirm what you already believe.
Attribution Bias
tendency to attribute motives or reasons for behaviors to a personality trait rather than a situation
Infotention
To describe digital literacy skills of managing technology we use and synthesizing the info we find online.
Circumstantial Evidence
Indirect evidence that suggests that something occurred but doesn’t prove it directly.
Synthesis
Critical thinking where the writer identifies patterns, themes, and connections among sources.
Using Sources
- Context
- Review literature
- Introduce a term or define a concept
- Present technical material
- Develop or support a claim
- Highlight differences or counterarguments
Paraphrasing
Put author’s ideas into own words, demonstrating you understand its significance.
Summarizing
Record the gist of the source.
Identify primary claim, state significance, and use your own words
Paul Graham’s “How to Disagree” pyramid
Name Calling
Ad Hominem
Responding to Tone
Contradiction
Counterargument
Refutation
Refuting the Central Point
Four Step Refutation
- Restate
- Refute
- Support
- Conclude
Quotations: when to use?
- author’s wording expresses the point so well changing it would weaken it
- authority supports opinion so powerfully with their own ideas
- authority challenges or seriously disagrees with others in the field
Signal Phrases
Introductory phrases that signal a direct quote.
Bullshit Detection
-Triangulate: look for other credible sources to corroborate a claim.
-Use fact-checking websites.
-Practice lateral reading.
Ways to Find Relevant Research
Google Search
Library Databases and Librarians
Google Scholar and Google Books
FOI Requests
The Internet Wayback machine
Fact Checking Resources
Politifact
Factcheck.org
Washington Post Fact Checker
Snopes
Scicheck
Media Bias
NPR FactCheck
Intellectual Property
Expression of ideas you find in works produced by others that you then use to advance or support your claim.
Academic Integrity
Phrase that describes principles of honest and moral behavior
Arguments about the past, present, and future
Past (forensic, judicial)
facts or judgments about the past; establishes blame or fault
Future (deliberative)
collaborative, speculative, basis is projections and predictions
Present (epideictic, ceremonial)
address widespread values, beliefs, and assumptions
Assessing Sources
relevance
hyperlinks
credentials
stance
accuracy
level of specialization
length
documentation
audience
availability
omissions
