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Terminology Flashcards

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1
Q

The scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes.

A

Psychology

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2
Q

The set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimizes error and yields dependable generalizations.

A

Scientific method

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3
Q

The actions by which an organism adjusts to its environment.

A

Behavior

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4
Q

Observational reports about the behavior of organisms

and the conditions under which the behavior occurs or changes.

A

Behavioral data

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5
Q

What are the four components of the definition of psychology?

A
  1. Describe
  2. Explain
  3. Predict
  4. Control

…What happens

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6
Q

The study of the structure of mind and behavior; the view that all human mental experience can be understood as a combination of simple elements or events.

A

Structuralism

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7
Q

Individuals’ systematic examination of their own thoughts and feelings.

A

Introspection

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8
Q

A school of psychology that maintains that psychological phenomena can be understood only when viewed as organized, structured wholes, not when broken down into primitive perceptual elements.

A

Gestalt Psychology

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9
Q

The perspective on mind and behavior that focuses on

the examination of their functions in an organism’s interactions with the environment.

A

Functionalism

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10
Q

A psychological model in which behavior is explained in terms of past experiences and motivational forces;
actions are viewed as stemming from inherited instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve conflicts between personal needs and social requirements.

A

Psychodynamic Perspective - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

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11
Q

The psychological perspective primarily concerned with observable behavior that can be objectively recorded and with the relationships of observable behavior to environmental stimuli.

A

Behaviorist Perspective

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12
Q

A scientific approach that limits the study of psychology to measurable or observable behavior.

A

Behaviorism

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13
Q

A psychological model that emphasizes an individual’s phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and developing to maximum potential.

A

Humanistic Perspective

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14
Q

The perspective on psychology that stresses human thought and the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, expecting, solving problems, fantasizing, and consciousness.

A

Cognitive Perspective

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15
Q

The approach to identifying causes of behavior

that focuses on the functioning of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system.

A

Biological Perspective

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16
Q

A multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand the brain processes that underlie behavior.

A

Behavioral Neuroscience

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17
Q

A multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand the brain processes that underlie higher cognitive functions in humans.

A

Cognitive Neuroscience

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18
Q

The approach to psychology that stresses the importance of behavioral and mental adaptiveness, based on the assumption that mental capabilities evolved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes.

A

Evolutionary Perspective

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19
Q

The psychological perspective that focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior.

A

Sociocultural Perspective

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20
Q

Psychodynamic analysis of aggression:

A

Analyse aggression as a reaction to frustrations caused by barriers to pleasure, such as unjust authority. View aggression as an adult’s displacement of hostility originally felt as a child against his or her parents.

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21
Q

Behaviorist analysis of aggression:

A

Identify reinforcements of past aggressive responses, such as extra attention given to a child who hits classmates or siblings. Assert that children learn from physically abusive parents to be abusive with their own children.

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22
Q

Humanistic analysis of aggression:

A

Look for personal values and social conditions that foster self-limiting, aggressive perspectives instead of growth-enhancing, shared experiences.

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23
Q

Cognitive analysis of aggression:

A

Explore the hostile thoughts and fantasies people experience while witnessing violent acts, noting both aggressive imagery and intentions to harm others. Study the impact of violence in films and videos, including pornographic violence, on attitudes toward gun control, rape, and war.

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24
Q

Biological analysis of aggression:

A

Study the role of specific brain systems in aggression by stimulating different regions and then recording any destructive actions that are elicited. Also analyse the brains of mass murderers for abnormalities; examine female aggression as related to phases of the menstrual cycle.

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25
Q

Evolutionary analysis of aggression:

A

Consider what conditions would have made aggression an adaptive behavior for early humans. Identify psychological mechanisms capable of selectively generating aggressive behavior under those conditions.

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26
Q

Sociocultural analysis of aggression:

A

Consider how members of different cultures display and interpret aggression. Identify how cultural forces affect the likelihood of different types of aggressive behavior.

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27
Q

Focus and practice: Study the origins of psychological disorders and day-to-day problems to evaluate treatment options; provide diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other issues of personal adjustment

A

Clinical psychologists
Counselling psychologists
Community psychologists
Psychiatrists

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28
Q

Focus and practice: Provide assessment and counselling for people with illnesses or disabilities; offer coping strategies and education to affected individuals, caretakers, employers, and community members

A

Rehabilitation psychologists

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29
Q

Focus and practice: Study the biochemical bases of behavior, feelings, and mental processes

A

Biological psychologists

Psychopharmacologists

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30
Q

Focus and practice: Use laboratory experiments, often with nonhuman participants, to study basic processes of learning, sensation, perception, emotion, and motivation

A

Experimental psychologists

Behavior analysts

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31
Q

Focus and practice: Study mental processes such as memory, perception, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and language use

A

Cognitive psychologists

Cognitive scientists

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32
Q

Develop tests and theories to understand differences in personalities and behaviors; study the influence of genetics and environments on those differences

A

Personality psychologists

Behavioral geneticists

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33
Q

Study how people function in social groups as well as the processes by which people select, interpret, and remember social information

A

Social psychologists

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34
Q

Study the changes that occur in the physical, cognitive, and social functioning of individuals across the life span; study the influence of genetics and environments on those changes

A

Developmental psychologists

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35
Q

Study the factors that influence performance and morale in the general workplace or on particular tasks; apply those insights in the workplace

A

Industrial–organizational psychologists

Human factors psychologists

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36
Q

Study how to improve aspects of the learning process; help design school curricular, teaching–training, and child-care programs

A

Educational psychologists

School psychologists

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37
Q

Study how different lifestyles affect physical health; design and evaluate prevention programs to help people change unhealthy behaviors and cope with stress

A

Health psychologists

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38
Q

Apply psychological knowledge to human problems in the field of law enforcement

A

Forensic psychologists

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39
Q

Assess the performance of athletes and use motivational, cognitive, and behavioral principles to help them achieve peak performance levels

A

Sports psychologists

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40
Q

Develop and evaluate new statistical methods; construct and validate measurement tools

A

Quantitative psychologists

Psychometricians

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41
Q

Develop mathematical expressions that allow for precise predictions about behavior and tests of contrasting psychological theories

A

Mathematical psychologists

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42
Q

An organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena.

A

Theory

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43
Q

The doctrine that all events physical, behavioral, and mental—are determined by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable.

A

Determinism

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44
Q

A tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables; often stated as a prediction that a certain outcome will result from specific conditions.

A

Hypothesis

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45
Q

The distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer.

A

Observer bias

46
Q

A set of uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test, interview, or experiment, or for recording data.

A

Standardization

47
Q

A definition of a variable or condition in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence.

A

Operational definition

48
Q

In an experimental setting, a factor that varies in amount and kind.

A

Variable

49
Q

In an experimental setting, a variable that the researcher manipulates with the expectation of having an impact on values of the dependent variable.

A

Independent variable

50
Q

In an experimental setting, a variable that the researcher measures to assess the impact of a variation in an independent variable.

A

Dependent variable

51
Q

Research methodology that involves the manipulation of independent variables to determine their effects on the dependent variables.

A

Experimental method

52
Q

A stimulus other than the variable an experimenter explicitly introduces into a research setting that affects
a participant’s behavior.

A

Confounding variable

53
Q

Result that occurs when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to participants the kind of behavior he or she expects to find, thereby creating that expected reaction.

A

Expectancy effect

54
Q

A change in behavior in the absence of an experimental manipulation.

A

Placebo effect

55
Q

Consistent procedure for giving instructions, scoring responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically varied.

A

Control procedure

56
Q

An experimental technique in which biased expectations of experimenters are eliminated by keeping both participants and experimental assistants unaware of which participants have received which treatment.

A

Double-blind control

57
Q

An experimental condition in which treatment is not administered; it is used in cases where a placebo effect might occur.

A

Placebo control

58
Q

A research design in which different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions.

A

Between-subjects design

59
Q

A procedure by which participants have an equal likelihood of being assigned to any condition within an experiment.

A

Random assignment

60
Q

A group in an experiment that is exposed to a treatment or experiences a manipulation of the independent variable.

A

Experimental group

61
Q

A group in an experiment that is not exposed to a treatment or does not experience a manipulation of the independent variable.

A

Control group

62
Q

The entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made based on an experimental sample.

A

Population

63
Q

A subset of a population selected as participants in an

experiment.

A

Sample

64
Q

A subset of a population that closely matches the overall characteristics of the population with respect to the distribution of males and females, racial and ethnic groups, and so on.

A

Representative sample

65
Q

A procedure that ensures that every member of a population has an equal likelihood of participating in an experiment.

A

Random sampling

66
Q

A research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment.

A

Within-subjects design

67
Q

Research methodology that determines to what extent two variables, traits, or attributes are related.

A

Correlational method

68
Q

A statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables.

A

Correlation coefficient (r)

69
Q

The degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used; stability or consistency of the scores produced by an instrument.

A

Reliability

70
Q

The extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure.

A

Validity

71
Q

A self-behavior that is identified through a participant’s own observations and reports.

A

Self-report measure

72
Q

Overt actions or reaction that is observed and recorded, exclusive of self reported behavior.

A

Behavioral measure

73
Q

A research technique in which unobtrusive observations are made of behaviors that occur in natural environments.

A

Naturalistic observation

74
Q

Intensive observation of a particular individual or small group of individuals.

A

Case study

75
Q

The process through which individuals are informed about experimental procedures, risks, and benefits before they provide formal consent to become research participants.

A

Informed consent

76
Q

A procedure conducted at the end of an experiment in which the researcher provides the participant with as much information about the study as possible and makes sure that no participant leaves feeling confused, upset, or embarrassed.

A

Debriefing

77
Q

Statistical procedures that are used to summarize sets of scores with respect to central tendencies, variability, and correlations.

A

Descriptive statistics

78
Q

Statistical procedures that allow researchers to determine whether the results they obtain support their hypotheses or can be attributed just to chance variation.

A

Inferential statistics

79
Q

A summary of how frequently each score appears in a set of observations.

A

Frequency distribution

80
Q

A statistic, such as a mean, median, or mode, that provides one score as representative of a set of observations.

A

Measure of central tendency

81
Q

The score appearing most frequently in a set of observations; a measure of central tendency.

A

Mode

82
Q

The score in a distribution above and below which lie 50 percent of the other scores; a measure of central tendency.

A

Median

83
Q

The arithmetic average of a group of scores; the most commonly used measure of central tendency.

A

Mean

84
Q

A statistic, such as a range or standard deviation, that indicates how tightly the scores in a set of observations cluster together.

A

Measure of variability

85
Q

The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a set of observations; the simplest measure of variability.

A

Range

86
Q

The average difference of a set of scores from their mean; a measure of variability.

A

Standard deviation (SD)

87
Q

A statistic that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables.

A

Correlational coefficient (r)

88
Q

The symmetrical curve that represents the distribution of scores on many psychological attributes; allows researchers to make judgments of how unusual an observation or result is.

A

Normal curve

89
Q

A difference between experimental groups or conditions that would have occurred by chance less than an accepted criterion; in psychology, the criterion most often used is a probability of less than 5 times out of 100, or p < .05.

A

Significant difference

90
Q

Darwin’s theory that favorable adaptations to features of the environment allow some members of a species to reproduce more successfully than others.

A

Natural selection

91
Q

The genetic structure an organism inherits from its parents.

A

Genotype

92
Q

The observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction between the organism’s genotype and its
environment.

A

Phenotype

93
Q

The biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

A

Heredity

94
Q

The study of the inheritance of physical and psychological

traits from ancestors.

A

Genetics

95
Q

The area of study that evaluates the genetic component of individual differences in behaviors and traits.

A

Human behavior genetics

96
Q

A field of research that focuses on evolutionary explanations for the social behavior and social systems of humans and other animal species.

A

Socio-biology

97
Q

The study of behavior and mind using the principles of evolutionary theory.

A

Evolutionary psychology

98
Q

The physical basis for the transmission of genetic information.

A

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

99
Q

The biological unit of heredity; discrete section of a chromosome responsible for transmission of traits.

A

Gene

100
Q

Chromosome that contains the genes that code for the development of male or female characteristics.

A

Sex chromosome

101
Q

Characteristic that is influenced by more than one gene.

A

Polygenic trait

102
Q

The genetic information for an organism, stored in the DNA of its chromosomes.

A

Genome

103
Q

The relative influence of genetics—versus environment—in determining patterns of behavior.

A

Heritability

104
Q

The scientific study of the brain and of the links between brain activity and behavior.

A

Neuroscience

105
Q

A cell in the nervous system specialized to receive, process, and/or transmit information to other cells.

A

Neuron

106
Q

One of the branched fibers of neurons that receive incoming signals.

A

Dendrite

107
Q

The cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus and cytoplasm.

A

Soma

108
Q

The extended fiber of a neuron through which nerve impulses travel from the soma to the terminal buttons.

A

Axon

109
Q

A bulblike structure at the branched ending of an axon that contains vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.

A

Terminal button

110
Q

Neuron that carries messages from sense receptors toward the central nervous system.

A

Sensory system

111
Q

Neuron that carries messages away from the central nervous system toward the muscles and glands.

A

Motor neuron

112
Q

Brain neuron that relays messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons.

A

Interneuron

Psychology (5 decks)

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