Technical Subject Areas Flashcards
When should a student pilot obtain a medical certificate?
Prior to beginning flight training, a flight instructor should interview the prospective student about any health conditions and determine his or her ultimate goal as a pilot, and should advise the student to obtain the class of medical certificate required. Finding out first whether the student is medically qualified could save time and money.
Explain how your student should obtain a medical certificate.
A medical certificate is obtained by passing a physical examination administered by a doctor who is an FAA authorized AME. To find the nearest AME, the student should go to the FAA’s AME locator online.
What is a “statement of demonstrated ability (SODA)”?
At the discretion of the Federal Air Surgeon, a SODA may be granted, instead of an Authorization, to a person whose disqualifying condition is static or non-progressive and who has been found capable of performing airman duties without endangering public safety. A SODA does not expire and authorizes a designated aviation medical examiner to issue a medical certificate of a specified class if the examiner finds that the condition described on its face has not adversely changed.
State several medical conditions which might prevent the issuance of a medical certificate.
- Clinical diabetes
- Coronary heart disease/heart attack
- Epilepsy
- Disturbance of consciousness
- Alcoholism
- Drug dependence
- Psychosis
What should students know about flight operations conducted while suffering from a medical deficiency?
No person may act as PIC, or in any other capacity as a required flight crew member, while having a known medical deficiency that would make him/her unable to meet the requirements for his/her current medical certificate.
A pilot holds a commercial certificate with ASEL and instrument ratings. The pilot would like to add an AMEL rating to his/her certificate. To be eligible for the practical test, what class of medical certificate is required?
The applicant must hold at least a third-class medical certificate.
What is the general definition of Hypoxia?
Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “lack of oxygen”. Any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long enough. The greatest concern during flight is hypoxia to the brain.
Name off the different types of hypoxia.
Hypoxic Hypoxia
Hypemic Hypoxia
Stagnant Hypoxia
Histotoxic Hypoxia
What is hypoxic hypoxia?
It is the result of insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole. A blocked airway is an obvious example.
What is an example of hypoxic hypoxia as it relates to aviation?
Flying at high altitudes without a pressurized cabin or supplemental oxygen can cause hypoxic hypoxia.
It occurs due to the reduction in partial pressure of oxygen molecules. There are fewer oxygen molecules available at the partial pressure required for them to pass between the membranes in the respiratory system, resulting in hypoxia.
What are the 14 CFR Part 91 regulations regarding supplemental oxygen altitude requirements?
Above 12,500’ MSL: If flying for more than 30 minutes, the crew members must wear and use supplemental oxygen.
Above 14,000’ MSL: The crew members must wear and use supplemental oxygen at all times.
Above 15,000’ MSL: The passengers must be offered supplemental oxygen.
What is Hypemic Hypoxia?
Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells in the body. Hypemic means “not enough blood”. It results from an oxygen deficiency in the blood, rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen.
What are some examples of hypemic hypoxia?
Lack of blood (severe bleeding)
Blood disease (anemia)
CO poisoning
Loss of blood due to blood donation
What is stagnant hypoxia?
Results when oxygen rich blood in the lungs is not moving to the tissues that need it. Stagnant means “not flowing”.
What is an example of stagnant hypoxia as related to flying?
Pulling excessive G’s during flight.
What is Histotoxic Hypoxia?
The inability of cells to effectively use oxygen. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells and “toxic” refers to poisonous. Oxygen is being transported to the cells that need it, but they are unable to make use of it.
What can cause histotoxic hypoxia?
Alcohol and drugs, such as narcotics. These things impair cellular respiration. Drinking 1 oz of alcohol can equate to an additional 2,000’ of physiological altitude.
What is typically the first symptom of hypoxia?
It is usually euphoria and a carefree feeling.
What can occur to your field of vision if hypoxia is present?
Your field of vision can start to narrow and make instrument interpretation harder. This is because your eyes use oxygen to function properly.
What are the treatments for hypoxia?
Flying at lower altitudes.
Having a pressurized cabin.
Using supplemental oxygen.
What is hyperventilation?
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood. Basic definition: “over-breathing”.
Why can hyperventilation lead to unconsciousness?
Hyperventilation can lead to unconsciousness due to the respiratory system’s overriding mechanism to regain control of breathing.
What are causes of hyperventilation?
Pilots encountering stressful situations may subconsciously increase their breathing rate.
Flying at higher altitudes may cause the pilot to increase breathing rate.
What are treatments for hyperventilation?
Breathing normally is the best treatment.
Breathing into a paper bag.
Talking out loud.
What is the middle ear?
The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of the skull. It is closed off from the external ear canal by the eardrum.
How is the pressure equalized in your middle ear with the outside air pressure?
Pressure differences between the middle ear & the outside world are equalized by a tube leading from inside each ear to the back of the throat on each side called the Eustachian Tube.
What occurs to your middle ear pressure as you climb?
Middle ear air pressure may exceed the pressure of the air in the external ear canal causing the eardrum to bulge outwards.
What occurs to your middle ear pressure as you descend?
The pressure of the air in the external ear canal increases, while the pressure inside the inner ear is lower pressure, causing the eardrum to bulge inwards.
This condition can be more difficult to relieve due to the fact that the partial vacuum tends to constrict the walls of the Eustachian Tube.
What are different ways you can remedy a middle ear problem?
Pinch the nostrils shut, close the mouth & lips and gently blow. This opens up the Eustachian Tube & allows pressure to equalize.
It may not be possible to equalize the pressure in the ears if a pilot has a cold, an ear infection, or sore throat.
How does the air in your sinuses equalize with the outside air pressure?
Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the pressure in the flight deck through small openings that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages.
What can an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition cause?
An upper respiratory infection or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization. This is known as a “sinus block”.
Where can the sinus block occur?
Frontal sinuses
Maxillary sinuses
How can a sinus block be prevented?
Sinus block can be avoided by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition.
What is spatial disorientation?
The lack of orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement of the airplane in space.
What are the three systems your body uses to determine movement and orientation in space?
- Vestibular System – Organs found in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are balanced.
- Somatosensory System – Nerves in the skin, muscles, and join that, along with hearing, sense position based on gravity, feeling and sound.
- Visual System – Eyes, which sense position based on what is seen.
What can occur when the visual system is taken away?
When the visual system is taken away, false sensations can cause a pilot to quickly become disoriented.
How does the vestibular system work?
Three semicircular canals are positioned at approximate right angles of each other in the inner ear. Each canal is filled with fluid and has a section full of fine hairs. Acceleration of the inner ear in any direction causes the tiny hairs to deflect, which in turn stimulates nerve impulses, sending messages to the brain.
How does the somatosensory system work?
Sends signals from the skin, joints, and muscles to the brain that are interpreted in relation to the Earth’s gravitational pull. The body cannot distinguish between acceleration forces due to gravity and those resulting from maneuvering the aircraft, which can lead to sensory illusions and false impressions of an aircraft’s orientation & movement.
What is the remedy to spatial disorientation?
Rely completely on the flight instruments.
What causes motion sickness?
Motion sickness is caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body. Anxiety & stress can contribute to motion sickness.
What techniques can a flight instructor use to overcome motion sickness in their student?
Avoid lessons in turbulent conditions.
Shorter flight lessons.
What is the treatment for motion sickness?
Open air vents.
Focus on an object outside the aircraft.
Avoid unnecessary head movements.
What is carbon monoxide?
CO is a colorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines.
What occurs during carbon monoxide poisoning?
CO can attach itself to hemoglobin 200x more easily than oxygen. This prevents hemoglobin from binding to oxygen molecules in the blood and carrying oxygen to the cells.
Results in hypemic hypoxia.
How can CO get into the cockpit?
Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents may provide CO a passageway into the cabin. Often times the heater works by taking in fresh air and having it flow through a shroud located on the exhaust pipe. The exhaust gases in the muffler heat up the fresh air that gets blown into the cockpit. If there is a crack in the exhaust pipe, CO is able to freely enter the cockpit.
What is the treatment for CO poisoning?
Turn off the heater. Open fresh air vents. Open windows. Use supplemental oxygen. Land immediately.
What is stress?
Stress is the body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it.
What is a “stressor” and what are the different types?
A term used to describe an element that causes an individual to experience stress.
Types:
1. Physical Stress – Noise or Vibration
2. Physiological Stress – Fatigue
3. Psychological Stress – Difficult work or personal situations.
What is acute stress?
Short term stress. Involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger. This type of stress triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual. A healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload.
What is chronic stress?
Defined as a level of stress that presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the capability of an individual to cope, and causes individual performance to fall sharply. Pilots experiencing this level of stress are not safe and should not exercise their airman privileges. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from chronic stress should consult a physician.
What can cause chronic stress?
Psychological pressures such as loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or work problems can produce a cumulative level of stress that exceeds a person’s ability to cope with.
What is acute fatigue?
Short term fatigue and is a normal occurrence in everyday living. Rest after exertion & 8 hours of sleep cures this condition.
How can you prevent acute fatigue?
Acute fatigue can be prevented by proper diet & adequate rest and sleep.
What is chronic fatigue?
Fatigue extending over a long period of time. Usually has psychological roots. Chronic fatigue usually requires treatment by a physician.
What is dehydration?
A critical loss of water from the body.
What can cause dehydration?
- Hot flight deck
- Humidity
- Diuretic Drinks
What is the most noticeable effect of dehydration?
Fatigue
How can you prevent dehydration?
- Drink 2-4 quarts of water every 24 hours.
- Drink water even when not thirsty.
- Carry a container in order to measure daily water intake.
- Limiting daily intake of caffeine and alcohol.
What is heatstroke?
A condition caused by an inability of the body to control its temperature.
If a pilot is experiencing a hangover from a great time at the club, are they still under the influence of alcohol?
Yes. Motor and mental response impairment is still present. Alcohol can remain in the body for up to 16 hours.
What regulation regards to alcohol?
14 CFR 91.17
What are the alcohol rules?
No person may act or attempt to act as a crew member of a civil aircraft -
- Within 8 hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage;
- While under the influence of alcohol;
- While having an alcohol concentration of 0.04 or greater in a blood or breath specimen. Alcohol concentration means grams of alcohol per deciliter of blood or grams of alcohol per 210 liters of breath.
What is decompression sickness?
DCS describes a condition characterized by a variety of symptoms resulting from exposure to low barometric pressures that cause inert gases (mainly nitrogen), normally dissolved in body fluids and tissues, to come out of physical solution and form bubbles.
Why can flying after scuba diving cause DCS?
Scuba diving subjects the body to increased pressure, which allows more nitrogen to dissolve in body tissues and fluids. The reduction of atmospheric pressure that accompanies flying can produce physical problems for scuba divers and cause DCS.
What are the waiting times after scuba diving?
Below 8,000’:
- 12 hours after diving that does not require a controlled ascent.
- 24 hours after diving that does require a controlled ascent.
8,000’ or above:
- 24 hours after any dive.
Describe some of the challenges a student may encounter during taxi operations.
A pilot taxiing an airplane to or from a runway or otherwise moving about an airport may encounter one or a combination of challenging scenarios. Construction, airport unfamiliarity, time of day, distractions, fatigue, and miscommunications with ATC can add greatly to the challenge of taxiing an airplane safely at an airport.
Explain the different types of airport signage and markings a student should be familiar with.
Airport Signs : Mandatory instruction, location, direction, destination, information, and runway distance remaining.
Airport Markings : Runway, taxiway, holding position, closed runways.
Pre-flight planning for taxi operations should be an integral part of the student’s flight planning process. What information should this include?
- Review and understand airport signage, markings and lighting.
- Review the airport diagram, planned taxi route, and identify and “hot spots”.
- Review the latest airfield NOTAMs and ATIS for taxiway/runway closures, construction activity, etc.
- Conduct a pre-taxi/pre-landing briefing that includes the expected/assigned taxi route and any hold short lines and restrictions based on ATIS information or previous experience at the airport.
- Plan for critical times and locations on the taxi route (complex intersections, crossing runways, etc.)
- Plan to complete as many aircraft checklist items as possible prior to taxi.
- Brief passengers on the importance of minimizing discussions, questions, and conversation during taxi (sterile cockpit).
What practical classroom exercise can an instructor use to assist a student in learning to taxi safely at an airport with multiple runways and taxiways?
- Have the student obtain an airport diagram.
- Give the student a taxi instruction from aircraft parking to a runway or from a runway to parking.
- Ask them to indicate on the airport diagram how they would comply with the instruction.
Why is it a good idea to teach your students to write taxi instructions down, especially at larger or unfamiliar airports?
Writing down taxi instructions, especially complex instructions, can reduce a pilot’s vulnerability to forgetting part of the instruction and provides a reference for read-back of instructions to ATC. It can also be used as a means of reconfirming the taxi route and any restrictions at any time during taxi operations.
When issued taxi instructions to an assigned takeoff runway, are you automatically authorized to cross any runway that intersects your taxi route?
No; Aircraft must receive a runway crossing clearance for each runway that their taxi route crosses. When assigned a takeoff runway, ATC will first specify the runway, issues taxi instructions, and state any hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances. ATC is required to obtain a read back from the pilot of all runway hold short instructions.
What are some recommended practices that can assist a student in maintaining situational awareness during taxi operations?
- Have a current airport diagram available for immediate reference during taxi.
- Monitor ATC instructions/clearances issued to other aircraft for the “big picture”.
- Focus attention outside the cockpit while taxiing.
- Use all available resources (airport diagrams, airport signs, markings, lighting, and ATC) to keep the aircraft on its taxi route.
- Cross reference heading indicator to ensure turns are being made in the correct direction and that the student is on the assigned taxi route.
- Prior to crossing any hold short line, visually check for conflicting traffic; verbalize “clear left, clear right”.
- Be alert for other aircraft with similar call signs on the frequency.
- Request progressive taxi instructions when unfamiliar with an airport or when confusion exists.
- Understand and follow all ATC instructions and if in doubt, ASK!
What should a student know concerning use of aircraft exterior lighting to enhance situational awareness and safety during airport surface operations?
To the extent possible and consistent with aircraft quipment, operating limitations, and pilot procedures, pilots should illuminate exterior lights as follows:
- Engine running - turn on the rotating beacon.
- Taxiing - Rotating beacon and landing light.
- Crossing/Entering Runway - strobes
During calm or nearly calm wind conditions, at an airport without an operating control tower, a pilot should be aware of what potentially hazardous situations?
Aircraft may be landing and/or taking off on more than one runway at the airport. Also, aircraft may be using an instrument approach procedure to runways other than the runway in use for VFR operations. The instrument approach runway may intersect the VFR runway. It is also possible that an instrument arrival may be made to the opposite end of the runway from which a takeoff is being made.
When taxiing an aircraft at a non-towered airport, what are several precautionary measures a pilot should take prior to entering or crossing a runway?
Listen on the appropriate frequency (CTAF) for inbound aircraft information and always scan the full length of the runway, including the final approach and departure paths, before entering or crossing the runway. Self-announce your position and intentions and remember that not all aircraft are radio-equipped.
What is an airport “hot spot”?
A “hot spot” is a runway safety related
problem area or intersection on an airport.
Typically it is a complex or confusing
taxiway/taxiway or taxiway/runway
intersection. A confusing condition may
be compounded by a miscommunication
between a controller and a pilot, and may
cause an aircraft separation standard to be
compromised. The area may have a history
of surface incidents or the potential for
surface incidents.
When should a student request “progressive” taxi instructions?
If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi instructions which include step-by-step routing directions. Progressive instructions may also be issued if the controller deems it necessary due to traffic or field conditions; i.e., construction or closed taxiways.
Lack of preparation in what three major areas contribute to runway incursions?
The three major areas contributing to runway incursions
are communications, airport knowledge, and flight deck
procedures for maintaining orientation.
What is the definition of a runway incursion?
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land.
When receiving taxi instructions from a controller, pilots should always read back what information?
The entire taxi route, especially any hold-short/crossing clearances.
