Technical Flashcards
Reciprocal Heading Formula
Init Hdg + 200° − 20° = Recip Hdg
(When smaller than 180°)
or
Init Hdg − 200° + 20° = Recip Hdg
(When greater than 180°)
Temp Conversion Formulas
Every 5°C = 9°F
[ (°C × 2) – 10%] + 32 = °F
[ (°F – 32) + 10%] ÷ 2 = °C
(2 × °C) + 30 = °F
(°F – 30) ÷ 2 = °C
Pressure Altitude calculation
Every .01 inHG = 10 feet
Standard 29.92
Add below, subtract above
Visibility to RVR
1/4 sm = 1600 RVR 1/2 sm = 2400 RVR 3/4 sm = 4000 RVR 1 sm = 5000 RVR 1 1/4 sm = 6000 RVR
Knots/Mach conversion to miles per minute
60 knts = 1 mile per minute
30 knts = 0.5 mile per minute
Mach x 10 = NM/min
Time-speed-distance formulas
GS x Time = Distance
TAS +/- Wind = GS
Enroute Decent Calculation
altitude to lose x 3
1 nm per 10 knts of airspeed to lose
Calculating VDP
DME method: HAT/300
Time method: HAT x 0.10
Approach Category minimum RVR requirement
Non - Precision: 2400’
Cat 1: 1800’ or 1400’ with special authorization
Cat 2: 1200’ or 1000’ with special authorization
Cat 3a: 700’
Cat 3b: 150’
Cat 3c: 0’
Standard Circling Radii
Cat A: 1.3 Cat B: 1.5 Cat C: 1.7 Cat D: 2.3 Cat E: 4.5
*expanded Radii marked with boxed C
MSA
Minimum Safe/Sector Altitude
1000’ obstacle clearance within 25 NM of nav facility
ESA: 1000’ clearance in non mountainous and 2000’ in mountainous within 100 NM of nav facility
MVA
Minimum Vectoring Altitude
- may be lower than MEA
- usually published only to controllers
- obstacle clearance 1000’ non-mountainous; 2000’ mountainous
- 1000’ clearance in mountainous may be authorized where needed with the use of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)
MEA
Minimum Enroute Altitude
- lowest published altitude between fixes that guarantees signal coverage and obstacle clearance (2000’ mountainous; 1000’ non-mountainous)
MOCA
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude
- assures signal coverage within 22 NM of VOR and meets obstacle clearance requirements (2000’ mountainous, 1000’ non-mountainous)
TDZL
Touchdown Zone Lighting
- 2 rows of white lights to indicate the touchdown zone. Start 100’ beyond landing threshold and extend to 3000’ or midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
Distance remaining indications on a Precision runway
Runway edge lights: change from white to yellow for the last 2000’ or half the runway, whichever is less
Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) - white lights at 50’ intervals along the centerline of the runway until the last 3000’; alternate white and red for the next 2000’; red for the remaining 1000’
Distance Remaining Markings - signs along the side of the runway spaced at 1000’ intervals
HIRL
High Intensity Runway Lighting
- runway edge lights are white, except the last 2000’ or half the length of the runway, whichever is less, change to yellow to form a caution zone.
- lights marking the end of the runway emit red towards departing aircraft to indicate the end and green towards arriving aircraft to indicate the threshold
Maximum Holding Speeds
FAA:
MHA - 6000’ : 200 kts
6001’ - 14,000’ : 230 kts (may be restricted to 210 kts)
14,001 and above : 265 kts
ICAO: Up to 14,000’ : 230 kts 14,001’ - 20,000’ : 240 kts 20,000’ - 34,000’ : 265 kts Above 34,000’ : Mach 0.83
NOTE Maintain 200 kts below 6,000’; 220 kts below 14,000’; and 240 kts above that, you will stay within all international holding speed limitations
Maximum timing for Inbound holding legs
1 minute at 14,000’ and below
1 1/2 minutes above 14,000’
Requirements to continue descent below DA/MDA
1) position to make normal descent to touchdown within the TDZ
2) flight visibility not less than required for the approach
3) distinctly visible threshold (markings or lights), runway (markings or lights), TDZ (markings or lights), VASI, or REILs, or ALS to 100’ above TDZ
When can you continue an approach if weather goes below mins
If weather drops below min:
FAA: after the final approach segment has been started the approach can continue to DA/MDA
ICAO: after aircraft is below 1000’ HAA
Required ATC calls under Radar contact
- Time and altitude over designated reporting points , if requested by ATC
- unforecast weather
- information regarding the safety of flight
- malfunction of nav, comm, or approach equipment
- time and Alt entering or leaving a holding clearance limit
- altitudes, altitude restrictions, and heading vectors
VOR Check Requirements
Every 30 days
- Ground VOR/VOT check: +/-4°
- Airborne check: +/-6°
- Dual VOR check: within 4° of each other
Lost Comm Procedures
FAA:
Route: (AVEF)
1) last ATC clearance received (A = assigned)
2) if being vectored, direct to vector clearance (V = vector clearance)
3) route advised to be expected (E = expected)
4) route filed (F = Filed)
Altitude (highest of)
1) minimum IFR altitude
2) expected in further clearance
3) assigned in last ATC clearance
ICAO:
*where radar is NOT used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 20 minutes following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory reporting point
*in airspace where radar is used in the provision of air traffic control, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 minutes following:
1) the time the last assigned level or minimum flight altitude is reached; or
2) the time the transponder is set to Code 7600; or
3) the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory reporting point;
When is a destination alternate required?
Domestic: +/- 1 hr of ETA - weather below 2000’ ceilings and 3 sm vis
Flag operation:
- flights greater that 6 hrs require and alternate
- flight is under 6 hrs and +/- 1 hr of ETA weather below: for circling approach ceiling at least 1500’ above MDA; or 1500’ above the lowers published approach min or 2000’ above airport elevation, whichever greater; and vis at least 3 sm or 2 sm above lowest approach min, whichever greater
Supplemental: must list an alternate for each destination in the release unless fuel requirements are met (at least an additional 2 hr supply after reaching destination)
Takeoff alternate requirement
- weather conditions at takeoff airport are below landing mins
For 2 engines: alternate must be within 1 hr at normal cruising speed in still air with one engine inop
For 3 or 4 engines: alternate must be with 2 hrs
Alternate Airport Weather Mins
Basic: 600/2 precision approach or 800/2 non precision approach
When are pilots required to wear O2 mask
Above FL410, one pilot at controls must wear a mask if the other leaves his station
Takeoff Visibility Mins
Usually defined in Ops Specs
STD: 1 and 2 eng: 1 sm/RVR5000; 3 and 4 eng: 1/2 sm/RVR2400
Adequate Vis Ref: All engines: 1/4 sm/RVR1600
With CL and RCLM: All engines: RVR500
CDA or CDFA
Continuous Descent Final Approach - technique of flying the final segment of a NPA with a continuous descent from an altitude at or above FAF to 50’ above landing threshold
V1 definition
Maximum speed in a takeoff at which the pilot must take first action (decision speed)
- affected by aircraft weight, flap setting, density altitude, runway slope, and wind condition*
- must be greater the Vef + pilot reaction time of 2 sec*
- must be equal or greater than Vmcg*
- only accounts for an engine failure, not a structural failure or some other abnormal event*
- V1 increase with altitude*
V2 definition
Takeoff/single engine safety speed
- min speed to be maintain to 400’ in case of engine failure
- guarantees 2.4% climb gradient for 2-engine airplanes (2.7 for 3 eng and 3.0 for 4 eng
- engine-out best rate of climb in takeoff
- increase in density altitude has the effect of lowering V2 speed because a higher density altitude reduces engine thrust*
Vmca definition
Minimum controllable airspeed airborne at which if the critical engine fails it is still possible to maintain control of the aircraft and maintain straight flight (within 20º of heading) with no more than a 5° bank
reduces as density altitude increases
Vmcg definition
Minimum controllable airspeed on the ground
airspeed during the takeoff run at which when the critical engine becomes inoperative it is still possible to maintain control of the aircraft using rudder control only
- no more that 30 feet excursion from centerline*
- limited 150 pounds of force*
Vref definition
Airspeed that is 1.3 times stalling speed in landing config
*airspeed required to be flown when crossing the landing threshold in landing config
Accelerated Stop Distance
the amount of runway required to accelerate the aircraft to just below V1, lose an engine, take the first action to stop the airplane, and come to a complete stop on the remaining runway and stopway
EPR
Engine Pressure Ratio: ratio of engine output pressure to engine intake pressure. Measure on the A320 by the P2/T2 sensor
Transformer Rectifier vs Static Inverter
TR: Converts AC to DC
Static Inverter: converts DC to AC
Likely Condition for Turbine engine icing
High turbine speed. On the ground
Dry air with temps between -15C and 5C or with visible moisture and temps between -15C and 7C
What effects stall speed?
Weight, load factor, and power
- for a given flap setting and aircraft will stall at the same angle of attack
How to achieve best range with a tailwind
Decrease cruise speed with a TW and increase cruise speed with a HW
Types of Hydroplaning
Dynamic: rolling over standing water on the runway. Occurs at 9 x square root of tire pressure
Viscous: roll over slick surface on the runway. Occurs at slow speeds
Reverted Rubber: locked wheel skid on a damp runway. Water trapped between locked wheel and the runway. Minimum contact with the runway.
Grid MORA
Grid min off-route altitude: derived by Jeppensen to clear all terrain and man made structures.
- does not proved navaid or comm coverage
- elevations 5000’ MSL and below 1000’ clearance over all terrain and manmade structures
- elevations 5000’ MSL and above 2000’ clearance over all terrain and manmade structures
Threat Error Management (TEM)
Safety concept regarding safety operation and human performance.
- It assumes pilots will naturally make mistakes and encounter risky situation.
- Focus on the pilot identifying and managing threats and errors so as not to impair safety
- Three components:
- Threats: external errors or events outside the influence of the flight crew (weather, traffic density, terrain)
- Errors: actions or inaction by the flight crew that lead to deviations from company or operational intentions or expectations
- Undesired State: aircraft configuration or circumstance other than intended caused by flight crew error or external factor (climbing through assigned altitude, flap overspeed)
Balanced Field Length
Amount of runway and stopway for an aircraft to accelerate to just below V1, lose an engine, and stop on the remaining runway; or accelerate to just above V1 and continue to obstacle clearance altitude
- accelerate-go performance is equal to accelerate-stop performance
Accelerate Go Distance
amount of runway required to accelerate the aircraft to V1, lose an engine, and continue the takeoff to the prescribed obstacle clearance altitude
Accelerate Stop Distance
amount of runway required to accelerate the aircraft to just below V1, lose an engine, take the first action to stop the airplane, and come to a complete stop on the remaining runway and stopway
Ice Types and when they would be encountered
Moisture must be present and aircraft surface below 0°C
Rime: small in droplet size, -15ºC to -20ºC, stratiform clouds
Clear Ice: large in droplet size, 2ºC to -10ºC, cumuliform clouds
Mixed: medium in droplet size, -10ºC to -15C, stratiform and cumuliform clouds
Expanded Circling Radii Cat C and D
> 1000: 2.7 (C), 3.6 (D) 1000-3000: 2.8 (C), 3.7 (D) 3001-5000: 2.9 (C), 3.8 (D) 5001-7000: 3.0 (C), 4.0 (D) 7001-9000: 3.2 (C), 4.2 (D) 9000 > : 3.3 (C), 4.4 (D)
LPV vs LP vs LNAV/VNAV approaches
LPV (localizer performance with vertical navigation): very similar to an ILS by using refined accuracy of WAAS (wide-area augmentation system) lateral and vertical guidance. Sensitivity increases as aircraft gets closer to the runway
LNAV/VNAV: lateral and vertical guidance … vertical guidance used internally generated glide slope. RAIM must be checked
LP )(localizer performance without vertical guidance): Uses WAAS lateral guidance. Similar to a loc approach. Independent of an LPV approach.
Low V1 limit vs High V1 limit
Low V1 limit: the lowest speed from which and aircraft can continue and still climb to at least 35’ above the runway surface and not lower than Vmcg
High V1 limit: the highest speed at which the aircraft can still stop on the runway and not higher than Vr
Reduced V1
A speed lower than maximum V1 to reduce the rejected takeoff stopping distance
*must also make sure the continued takeoff performance is met
Takeoff Distance
Distance from brake release:
- accelerate to V1 - lose the critical engine - accelerate to Vr and Vlof - proceed to 35’ at V2 with gear down (Dry)
Distance from break release:
- accelerate to V1 - lose the critical engine - accelerate to Vr and Vlof - proceed to 15’ at V2 with gear down (Wet)
Runway limit weight
- maximum weigh limit under current conditions that guarantees the aircraft meets balanced field length requirements
- maximum weight at which the aircraft can experience a so-called V1 failure and still stop on the remaining runway or continue to a point 35 feet above the runway within the runway/clearway distance limits
- most restrictive weigh limit
Takeoff Climb Segments
1st: brake release to a point at least 35’ above the runway surface at V2 with gear retracted
2nd: V2 and gear retraction until acceleration altitude (typically 400’)
3rd: acceleration altitude until aircraft is cleaned up and in cruise/climb config and airspeed
4th: climb config and airspeed until 1500’ (Enroute environment)
Minimum climb gradient required
2 eng:
- 1st seg: positive rate
- 2nd seg: 2.4%
- 3rd and 4th seg: 1.2%
3 eng:
- 1st seg: 0.3%
- 2nd seg: 2.7%
- 3rd and 4th seg: 1.5%
4 eng:
- 1st seg: 0.5%
- 2nd seg: 3.0%
- 3rd and 4th: 1.7%
*conversions - 1.2% = 12’ per 1000’ traveled; 1.5% - 15’ per 1000’ traveled; etc
Landing Distance Required
Must be able to land within 60% of available runway - Dry
Runway available must be 115% of aircrafts computed required runway length - Wet
Maximum bank angles
50’ < 100’ : 15°
100’ < 400’ : 20°
400’ < 25°
*no banks prior to 50’ or 1/2 wingspan of the aircraft
Aircraft Approach Categories
1.3 x Vso (Vref) at MLW
Cat A: 90 knts or less Cat B: 91 knts to 120 knts Cat C: 121 to 140 knts Cat D: 141 to 165 knts Cat E: above 165 knts
Does accelerate stop distance include the use of reverse thrust
Dry runway: reverse thrust cannot be used in the calculation
Wet runway: reverse thrust can be used in the calculation
MALSR, MALSF, ALSF-1, ALSF-2
MALSR: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights
MALSF: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing lights
ALSF-1: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 1
ALSF-2: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 2
When to begin slowing prior to a hold?
FAA: 3 minutes or less from the fix if clearance beyond has not been received
ICAO: states that holding patters shall be entered and flown at or below the given airspeeds
O2 requirements for pressurized turbine aircraft
- not less than a 2 hr supply for each flight crew member on duty
- enough for a constant rate descent from max altitude to 10,000’ in 10 mins and an addition 110 mins at 10,000’
- with quick doning mask one must wear mask if other leaves station above FL410
Position Report Items
- identification
- position
- time
- altitude and flight level
- ETA and name of next reporting point
- name of next succeeding reporting point
- pertinent remarks
Additional Reports
- vacating any previously assigned altitude
- unable to climb/descend at 500’ per min
- missed Approach
- change in average airspeed by 5% or 10 knts
- time and altitude reaching a holding fix
- loss of NAV/Comm equipment
- info related to safety of flight
- unforecast weather
Effects of wind after an engine failure?
Takeoff and landing:
- A crosswind would be a factor in the amount of rudder required. - A loss of the upwind engine would greater the amount of rudder required
- A headwind would allow for an increased V2 with increased performance
- tailwind would increase ASD
- Headwind decrease ASD
Enroute: a headwind or tailwind would effect performance to an alternate
Maximum takeoff weight for a given runway
When balanced field length equals runway length available
Climb Limit Weight
Guarantees aircraft ability to climb from 35’ above the runway surface to 1500’ with required climb gradient
Ground Speeds ———> miles per min
60 knts = 1 mile/min
90 knts = 1.5 miles/min
120 knts = 2 miles/min
150 knts = 2.5 miles/min
240 knts = 4 miles/min 300 knts = 5 miles/min 360 knts = 6 miles/min 420 knts = 7 miles/min 480 knts = 8 miles/min 540 knts = 9 miles/min
Fuel requirements (domestic)
1) fly to airport in dispatch release (trip fuel)
2) fly to the most distant alternate (alternate fuel)
3) fly 45 mins at normal cruising speed (reserve fuel)
Fuel requirements (flag operation)
1) fly to destination airport (trip fuel)
2) 10 % of of fuel required to the destination (contingency fuel)
3) fly to alternate airport (alternate fuel)
4) fly for 30 mins at 1500’ above alternate (reserve fuel)
* if no alternate enough to get to destination plus 2 hrs (reserve fuel)
Emergency Fuel
FAA:
- The point at which, in the judgment of the pilot-in-command, it is necessary to proceed directly to the airport of intended landing due to low fuel
- enough fuel to land at best suitable airport with fuel reserve (no alternate fuel)
- Declaration of a fuel emergency is an explicit statement that priority handling by ATC is both required and expected
- per FAA: There is no regulatory definition as to when, specifically, a pilot must declare “minimum fuel” or a fuel emergency*
ICAO:
- fuel emergency ”MAYDAY FUEL”, is when the calculated usable fuel predicted to be available upon landing at the nearest aerodrome where a safe landing can be made is less than the planned final reserve fuel
SLOP
Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure
- encourages aircraft operation in the NAT (North Atlantic Region/Airspace) to fly self-selected lateral offsets to provide additional safety margins
- mitigates the risk of traffic/separation conflicts
- collision risk reduces
- reduces the probability of encountering wake turbulence
- right offsets of centerline allowed up to a maximum of 2 NM
- offsets to the left not permitted
- if aircraft without auto offset must fly centerline
- no ATC clearance required for this procedure
Clearway
An area beyond the runway obstacle free (threshold lights permitted) at least 500’ wide
Stopway
area beyond the takeoff runway at least the width of the runway and centered upon the extended centerline of the runway, able to support the airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing structural damage to the airplane
OTS (Organized Track System)
- Daytime and Nighttime OTS published Daily
- Shanwick publishes daytime at 0000Z
- Gander publishes nighttime at 1200Z
- use of tracks not mandatory
- use of tracks allow ATC to effectively separate aircraft
- aligned in ways in minimize headwinds and maximize tailwinds
NAT HLA
North Atlantic Traffic High Level Airspace
- re designated in 2016 to support the PBN (performance based navigation) transition
- FL285 —> FL420
- Datalink required between FL350 —> FL390
ADS (Automatic Dependent Surveillance)
ADS-B (broadcast):
- Out: sends GPS position to ATC and other aircraft with ADS-B
- In: more accurate version of TCAS
- broadcasts position, altitude, vector, and other info to ATC
- used by aircraft and surface vehicles
ADS-C (contract):
- transmits information to one or more specific ATS (air traffic service) or AOC facilities
METAR
- Usually issued hourly and valid for 1 hr
- SPECI: unscheduled report containing change in WX
TAF
- Valid for 24 - 30 hr period
- published 4 times per day (0000, 0600, 1200, 1800)
- within 5 miles of the airport
- BECMG: trend over period of time
- PROB: probability
- TEMPO: less than 1 hr with greater than 50% probability
CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communication)
- Replacement of HF over Oceanic and VHF in some domestic areas
- reduces time it takes ATC to issue instructions and receive pilot acknowledgment
- if round trip time of a message between ATC and the pilot can be reduced to 240 seconds or less, the lateral and longitudinal spacing can be reduced (RCP 240)
AIRMETs
- issued every 6hr starting at 0245 UTC
- Sierra: IFR Conditions (less than 1000’ ceilings/3 miles vis) and mountain obscurations
- Tango: moderate turbulence and winds greater than 30 knts
- Zulu: moderate icing and freezing levels
SIGMET
- convective or non-convective activity important to all aircraft
- severe icing
- severe or extreme turbulence
- dust storms
- volcanic ash
- issued as needed and valid for 4 hrs
- if issued due to hurricane or volcanic ash valid for 6 hrs
Convective SIGMET
- implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, low level windshear, severe thunderstorm
- hazardous to all categories of aircraft
- issued hourly and valid for 2 hrs
Takeoff Path
From start of the runway to a point aircraft reaches at least 1500’
- provides obstacle clearance for all four segments
- allows for aircraft to accelerate to Vef, at which point the most critical engine become inop , and allow the aircraft to accelerate to V2 before reaching 35’
- maintain V2 until 400’
- maintain 1.2% climb after 400’ (two-engines)
Takeoff Run
Distance that allows pilot:
- accelerate to V1
- lose critical engine
- accelerate to Vr and Vlof
- reach a point 1/2 between liftoff and 35’ above takeoff surface
Net Takeoff Flight Path
Actual takeoff path during certification reduced by 0.8%, or 8’ per 1000’ traveled (twin engine)
Vertical profile through the 4 takeoff segments that clears all obstacles by 35’ vertically, or by 200’ horizontally within the airport boundaries (300’ after passing the airport boundaries)
ETOPS
Extended Operations (previously Extended Twin-Engine Operation)
- begins when an airplane is more that 60 mins (twin engine) or 180 mins ( three or four engines) flight time from an adequate diversionary airport at one engine inoperative cruise speed in still air
Screen Height
Imaginary screen at the end of the runway or clearway that the airplane would just clear with wings level and landing great down at 35’ and V2 (15’ on a wet runway)
Weather Deviations on NAT
- Advise intentions on 121.5 and 123.45
- If deviation is greater than 5NM descends 300’ if North of track or climb 300’ if South of track (start climb or descent after passing 5NM from track) : SAND = South Ascend North Descend
- clear of weather….return to track and level
Oceanic Inflight Contingency Procedure
If unable to follow ATC clearance and unable to obtain a new clearance:
Within NAT:
- offset left or right of track 30º to 5NM
- alert other aircraft on 121.5 and 123.45
- turn on all exterior lights
- squeak 7700
- parallel track and establish 500’ vertical offset (1000’ above FL410)
- preferably descend below FL290 to an altitude with less traffic and establish 500’ vertical offset
- obtain a new clearance with ATC
Other than NAT:
- offset left or right of track 45º and 15NM
- alert other aircraft on 121.5 and 123.45
- turn on all exterior lights
- squeak 7700
- clear of 10NM establish 500’ vertical offset (1000’ above FL410)
Standard Separation between NAT OTS (North Atlantic Tracks Organized Track System)
1 degree (approx 60 nm) of latitude at significant points
*RLatSM: reduces lateral separation to 1/2 degree of latitude (approx 25 nm)
Jet Stream
- Long relatively narrow band of strong wind primarily blowing from west to east
- strongest in the winter
- Polar Jet Stream located at approximately 50-60 degrees N and S
- Sub-tropical Jet Stream located at approximately 30 degrees N and S
- common area of Clear Air Turbulence
- found at the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere)
- follow boundaries between cold and hot air
Icing Conditions
- defined as conditions of OAT (on the ground) or TAT (in flight) below 10ºC with visible moisture
- most icing tends to form between 0º and -20º at altitudes around 10,000’
- structural icing forms when supercooled droplets come in contact with the aircraft surface
Runway Condition
Dry - Runway is not wet or contaminated; clear of contaminates and moisture
Wet:
- FAA: more than 25% of the runway surface is covered be visible dampness or less than 3mm of water
- ICAO: neither Dry nor Contaminated
Contaminated:
- FAA: more than 25% of the runway surface is covered by frost, ice, or any depth of snow, slush, or water
- ICAO: more than 25% of the runway surface is covered by water, more that 3mm of slush, compacted snow, loose snow more that 20mm, or ice
Damp:
- EU: surface not Dry, but moisture does not give off shiny appearance. (Considered Dry)
Stabilized Approach Criteria
Prior to 1000’ IMC, 500’ VMC:
- Vref -0/+20
- 1000 fpm descent or less
- landing configuration
- correct flight path and power setting
- checklist complete
- within 1 dot of loc/gs
QNE vs QNH vs QFE
QNE: altimeter is set to International standard of 29.92” or 1013 millibars. Altimeter reads pressure altitude and is used in the flight levels
QNH: local altimeter setting when operating below the flight levels. Pressure altitude corrected for local conditions. Will read field level when on the ground
QFE: QNH adjusted for field elevation. Altimeter will read 0’ on the ground
- QNH = “nautical height”
- QFE = “field elevation”
Minimum Fuel
FAA:
- an aircraft’s fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the destination, it can accept little or no delay
- This is not an emergency situation but merely an advisory that indicates an emergency situation is possible should any undue delay occur
- A minimum fuel advisory does not imply a need for traffic priority
- per ATC common sense and good judgment will determine the extent of assistance to be given in minimum fuel situations
- If, at any time, the remaining usable fuel supply suggests the need for traffic priority to ensure a safe landing, the pilot should declare an emergency and report fuel remaining in minutes
ICAO:
- when having committed to land at a specific airport the pilot calculates that and delay or change to the current clearance may result in landing with less than the Final Fuel Reserve (30 mins at Holding Speed at 1500’ HAA in standard conditions)
- “MINIMUM FUEL” informs ATC that, for a specific aerodrome of intended landing, the aircraft has sufficient fuel remaining to follow the cleared routing, execute an arrival and approach procedure and land with the required fuel reserves
- not an emergency situation, but an advisory that an emergency could arise from any further delay*
Visual Aids to assist pilots in LAHSO
- yellow pavement markings
- red and white signage
- in-pavement lighting
LAHSO Restrictions
For Air Carrier must be:
- 1,500’ ceiling and 5 miles vis; or 1,000’ ceiling and 3 miles vis with VASI or PAPI
- ALD must be dry
- tailwind less that 3 knts
- no windshear reported
Dutch Roll
- characteristic of Swept-back wings
- tendency of aircraft to roll as it yaws
- with a yaw the effective wing span between left and right changes
- the forward wing creates more lift than the opposite causing a rolling action
- as more light is generated dray increases on that wing creating an opposite rolling action and oscillations
Class 1 vs Class 2 Airspace
Class 1:
- any en route flight operation conducted in controlled or uncontrolled airspace that is entirely within operational service volumes of ICAO standard NAVAIDs (GNSS, VOR, VOR/DME, and NDB)
- the operational service volumes of the NAVAIDs solely determine the lateral and vertical boundaries of Class 1 navigation
Class 2: Class II navigation is any en route operation not categorized as Class I navigation and includes any operation, or portion of an operation, that takes place outside the operational service volumes of ICAO standard NAVAIDs
note: with updated ACs most references to Class 1 and Class 2 Airspace have been removed
Domestic vs Flag vs Supplemental
Domestic: any scheduled operation that is operated entirely within the 48 contiguous US
Flag: any schedule operation that operated between any point
- within Alaska or Hawaii and any point outside of Alaska or Hawaii - within the 48 CONUS and any point outside the 48 CONUS - between two points completely outside the 50 US
Supplemental: charter/non scheduled operations
When is a second alternate required?
When weather conditions at the destination airport and first alternate are reported as marginal
VOR Service Volumes
Terminal: 1,000’ - 12,000’ and 25NM
Low: 1,000 - 18,000’ and 40 NM
High: 1,000’ - 14,500’ and 40 NM
14,500’ - 18,000’ and 100 NM
18,000’ - 45,000’ and 130 NM
45,000’ - 60,000’ and 100 NM
Aircraft Weight Categories
Small: under 41,000 lbs MTOW
Large: 41,000 lbs to 299,999 lbs MT0W
Heavy: Greater that 300,000 lbs MTOW
Characteristics of Aft CG
- Aft CG limit of an aircraft determined largely by consideration of stability
- Less tail down force
- Higher cruise speed
- less drag
- stall recovery more difficult
- less stable as CG moves toward rearward limit
Characteristics of a FWD CG
- lower cruise speed
- higher stall speed
- increased wing loading
- nose down tendencies
Official weather for establishing ILS Critical Areas
Ceiling 800’ and Vis 2 SM
Reduced Thrust vs Derated Thust
Reduced Thrust (Flex-temp, Assumed Temp Thrust):
- performance based on “assumed temperatures”
- thrust setting that although requiring more runway and will still safely maintain FAA-required minimum takeoff and climb performance on departure
Derated Thrust (Thrust 1 or Thrust 2): - fixed valued thrust reduction without considering temperature into the performance equation
Advantages to both:
- maintenance cost savings
- increased reliability
- reduced engine wear and engine noise
DME Arc protection
Initial phase:
- Primary Area: 4NM each side and 1,000’ ROC (Required Obstacle Clearance) - Secondary Area: 2NM each side and tapers to 0’ ROC
Intermediate phase:
- Primary Area: 4NM each and 500’ ROC - Secondary Area: 2NM each side and tapers to 0’ ROC
Holding Pattern Protection
- Size of hold is determine by aircraft speed and TERPS tables
- protection on both holding and non-holding side
- Primary area: 1000’ ROC in holding area
- Secondary area: 2NM area around Primary with 500’ ROC tapering to 0’
PRM Approaches
- PRM = Precision Runway Monitor
- used in simultaneous close parallel approaches
- surveillance system used to monitor No Transgression Zone (NTZ) for aircraft separation of close parallel runways
- specific airborne equipment, training, procedures required
Requirements for CATII and CAT III approaches
- special ground and airborne equipment
- special aircrew training and authorization
- Air Carrier Ops Specs covers details
- TDZ RVR is controlling and must be used
- CATIII require TDZ, Midpoint, and Rollout RVR
What temp does Fuel Freeze at?
-40ºC
Meaning of FM, BECMG, TEMPO, PROB on a TAF
FM (FROM): prevailing weather conditions are expected to rapidly change over a period of 1 hour
BECMG (BECOMING): gradual change in weather over a period of 2 hours
TEMPO: temporary fluctuation in weather forecast to last 1 hour or less
PROB: Probability of forecasts weather
Typical Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC)
Typical ROC values are:
- 1000 feet (2000 over designated mountainous terrain) for en route, STAR, and feeder segments
- 1000 feet for initial segments
- 500 feet for intermediate segments
- 250-500 feet for final segments.
Requirements of a circling approach
- 300’ ROC in circling approach area
- circling area based Category aircraft TAS
- final approach course alignment greater that 30º
- descent gradient is greater than 400 ft/NM from the FAF to the threshold crossing height (TCH)
Standard climb gradient in ft/nm during initial departure
200 ft/nm per TERPS
When does Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (SMGCS)require a low visibility taxi plan?
Surface vis below 1200 RVR
Trigger Notam
-issued to “alert” people of changes to the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) or aeronautical databases
Runway Illusions
- Narrow runway = feels higher
- Wider runway = feels lower
- upslope runway = feels higher
- downslope runway = feels lower
- overwater/dark surroundings/featureless = feels higher
- rain on windshield = feels higher
- haze = extra depth and height
- penetrating fog = illusion of pitching up
Flight/Duty time limits all-cargo supplemental
- 1,000 flight hours per cal year
- 100 flight hours per 30 consecutive days
- 8 hours between rest periods (2 pilots)
Vr definition
- the rotation speed or the speed at which the nose may be raised to initial climb attitude
- speed to which the aircraft should be accelerated prior to establishing the takeoff/climb pitch attitude for liftoff
- increase with altitude for a given weight
Extended Twin-Engine Operation ETOPS Authorizations
ETOPS-75 mins (Caribbean)
ETOPS-90 mins (Micronesia)
ETOPS-120 mins
ETOPS-180 mins (includes 207 mins in North Pacific)
ETOPS-Beyond 180 mins (excluding 207 in North Pacific)
ETOPS-240 mins
When is ETOPS required?
2 Engines:
Route contains a point with an adequate airport beyond 60 mins with one engine inoperative in still air
3 and 4 Engines:
Route contains a point with an adequate airport beyond 180 mins with one engine inoperative in still air
