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TEAS > TEAS anatomy > Flashcards

TEAS anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

coronal plane

A

frontal plate
posterior and anterior

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2
Q

sagittal plane

A

left and right halves

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3
Q

ventral

A

anterior

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4
Q

dorsal

A

posterior

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5
Q

trunk aka

A

torso

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6
Q

trunk includes

A

pelvis, abdomen, chest

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7
Q

what controls the temperature and humidity of air into body

A

respiratory sytem. important function.

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8
Q

what is more superior, thyroid cartilage or cricoid cartilage?

A

cricoid is inferior to thyroid cartilage

think how feelings swallow is kind of further up

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9
Q

respiratory biggest to smallest

A

nasal vestibule–> nasal cavity–>pharynx
or
oral cavity –> pharynx

pharynx–>larynx (epiglottis)–>larynx (vocal folds) –> trachea –> trachea carina –> bronchi –> lobar bronchus –>lingular division bronchi

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10
Q

Lobar bronchus left versus right

A

right: superior, inferior, middle
left: superior, inferior

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11
Q

left lung

A
  • cardiac notch
  • apex at the top
  • oblique fissure
  • lingula of the lung is the notch created by the cardiac notch
  • just a superior and inferior lobe
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12
Q

right lung

A
  • superior lobe
  • middle lobe
  • inferior lobe
  • horizontal AND oblique fissue
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13
Q

structures of alveoli

A

an alveolar duct that is surrounded by mucosal gland and mucusal lining. pulmonary A&V wrapped around the outside of the duct that then form webs around the alveolar sacs. the atrium is the empty space that the balloons hang out while the alveolar sacs are the balloons.

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14
Q

nasal conchae

A

the hard structures inside of the nasal cavity (superior, middle, inferior)

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15
Q

Upper respiratory tract

A

nose, sinus, pharynx, larynx

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16
Q

Lower respiratory tract

A

trachea, bronchi, lungs

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17
Q

Respiration

A

respiration is more than just breathing. It’s the process of using oxygen to break down food for energy

Internal and External respiration

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18
Q

Internal respiration

A

Internal respiration involves the transport of oxygen to all the tissues and cells in the body through the blood

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19
Q

External respiration

A

external respiration, or getting oxygen from the external environment into the body. Once the oxygen enters the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the blood.

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20
Q

Cellular respiration

A

occurs inside where oxygen is used to break glucose molecules down for energy. The blood then transports the waste product, carbon dioxide, back to the lungs where it is exhaled.

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21
Q

Accessory muscles for respiration

A

he intercostal muscles and accessory muscles can also be used to enable greater expansion.

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22
Q

Ventilation

A

The rate at which gas enters or leaves the lungs is called ventilation

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23
Q

How is the resp system controlled by the nervous system

A

rate of ventillation is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, specifically by the medulla oblongata and pons.

If the level of carbon dioxide in the blood increases, this is detected by receptors in the:
aorta, carotid artery, and medulla. A signal is then sent to increase the rate of breathing to remove excess CO2
.

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24
Q

CF cause

A

genetic

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25
Q

allergies causes

A

both genes and environment

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26
Q

asthma causes

A

genetic and environmental

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27
Q

conditions caused by exposure to pollutants

A

COPD, emphysema, mesothelioma, lung cancer

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28
Q

hepatic circulation

A

hepatic vein carries blue blood to the vena cava

hepatic artery carries red blood to the liver

hepatic portal vein carries deoxy blood from stomach and intestines to the liver, which is then carried back to the hepatic vein and then the vena cava

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29
Q

how long do red blood cells live

A

4 months

platelets are 1 week

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30
Q

what is the pulmonary trunk

A

the archway for the pulmonary arteries before they split off into 4.
carries deoxy blood. its sent to the lungs for oxygenation.

vena cava also carries deoxy blood but its to the heart.

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31
Q

Mitral valve

A

on the left side of the heart
also bicuspid
has to deal with increased back pressure from the aorta

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31
Q

tricuspid valve

A

on the right side of the heart

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31
Q

Semilunar valves

A

are present in BOTH the aortic valve and the pulmonary valve (the two big pumps moving blood away)

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32
Q

right atrium

A

recieves blood from the body

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33
Q

left atrium

A

recieves blood from the lungs

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34
Q

Two circuits of blood flow

A

pulmonary and systemic

pulmonary is low O2 to high O2, middle is lungs
systemic is high O2 to low O2, middle is body

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35
Q

normal systolic and diastolic

A

under both 120 and 80

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36
Q

Digestive system includes

A

salivary glands, parotid glands, sublingual glands, submandibular glands, mouth, tongue

pharynx, esophagus, liver, gallbladder, stomach, spleen, pancreas

SI
LI
anus

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37
Q

structure of the SI

A

1 duodenum
2 jejunum
3 ileum

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38
Q

structure of the LI

A
  1. appendix
  2. ascending colon
  3. transverse colon
  4. descending colon
  5. sidmoid colon
  6. rectum
  7. anal canal
  8. anus
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39
Q

Alimentary canal

A

In the digestive system, the one-way pathway through which food travels is called the alimentary canal.

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, duogenum, large intestine, anus.

mouth and stomach digest mechanically

It does not include accessory organs.

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40
Q

accessory organs of the digestive system

A

does not include alimentary canal

liver, salivary glands, gallbladder, pancreas

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41
Q

digestive system overall function

A

break down and absorb

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42
Q

pepsin

A

proteins break down

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43
Q

amylase

secreted by the pancreas

A

carbs break down

secreted by pancreas

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44
Q

chemical digestion

A

saliva, stomach acid, liver enzymes, pancreas enzymes

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45
Q

lipase

A

secreted by pancreas

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46
Q

nuclease & proteolytic enzymes

proteolitic enzymes break down protein and nuclease breaks down nucleotides

A

secreted by the pancreas

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47
Q

Bile

A

secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder for digestion

breaks down fats

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48
Q

Functions of the liver

A

remove toxins
metabolism
digestion

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49
Q

Neuromuscular system

A

CNS and PNS combined

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50
Q

how many neurons does the brain have

A

100 million

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51
Q

where does spinal cord begin and end

A

base of skull, through vertebral column, ending between 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae

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52
Q

PNS is divided into

and what does it include?

A

somatic and autonomic nervous systems

includes the cranial and spinal nerves (not the spinal CORD)

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53
Q

afferent, efferent, interneurons

A

afferent sensory signals arrives at the brain
efferent signals exit the brain and go to the muscles
interneurons go between

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54
Q

muscle cells contain what

A

muscle fibers

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55
Q

Smooth muscle

A

found in blood vessels
the eyes
bladder, intestine, digestive, urinary, uterus
uses peristalsis

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56
Q

FSH and LH do what in the testes

A

During puberty, the testes respond to the release of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) to begin the production of active sperm.
testes also create testosterone for males

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57
Q

Flow of sperm & seminal fluid

A

semen:
testes–>epididymis –> ductus (vas) deferens –> ampulla –> ejaculatory duct

seminal fluid:
seminal vesicle–>ejaculatory duct
prostate also leads to ejaculatory duct

urethra:
ejaculatory duct–>prosthatic urethra–>membranous urethra–>spongy urethra–>external urethral opening

lubricate and prepare for urethral ejaculation by making things acidic to cancel out basic:
bulbourethral gland–> spongy urethra

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58
Q

what happens during female puberty

A

During puberty, the ovaries respond to FSH and LH to begin releasing egg cells on a monthly basis.
ovaries create eggs similar to how testes create sperm.

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59
Q

broad ligament

A

ties down the uterus to the pelvic muscle

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60
Q

ovarian ligament

A

ovary to uterus

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61
Q

The main female sex hormones

A

estrogen, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

regulate the menstural cycle

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62
Q

female hormone that stimulates changes during puberty

A

estrogen

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63
Q

pituitary gland

A

found in the brain and controls the release of FSH, LH, and oxytocin

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64
Q

ovaries

A

produce estrogen and progesterone

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65
Q

epidermis layers

A

top to bottom:
stratum corneum, lucideum, granulosum, spinosum, basale

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66
Q

hypodermis

A

body fat

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67
Q

dermis

A

muscular tissue, follicles and hair roots, nerve endings, vessels, glands, and connective tissue

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68
Q

integumentary system

A
  • acts as a barrier and protects the body from damage.
  • It also excretes waste substances, such as sweat
  • regulate body temperature
  • vitamin D synthesis
  • Sensory receptors for the detection of pain, pressure, and temperature
  • maintain homeostasis: narrow blood vessels in dermis to prevent heat loss and excrete sweat through glands to cool the body
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69
Q

Endocrine system of the brain

A

Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary

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70
Q

endocrine system of the throat

A

thymus, thyroid, parathyroid

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71
Q

endocrine in the abdomen and pelvis

A

adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes

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72
Q

what is produced in the adrenal medulla

A

catecholamines (dopamine, norepinepine, epineprine)

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73
Q

excretory system includes

A

skin, lungs, rectum

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74
Q

lymphatic system

A

adenoids, tonsil, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, BM

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75
Q

first line defense

of immune system

A

occur before a pathogen can enter the bloodstream and include the skin, saliva, mucous membranes, hair, and stomach acid.

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76
Q

second line defense

A

innate immune cells in the bloodstream

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77
Q

third line defense

A

adaptive immune cells that target specific pathogens

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78
Q

axial skeleton

A

skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

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79
Q

appendicular skeleton

A

pelvis, shoulders, limbs

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80
Q

flat bones

A

thin bones that protect organs and join other bones together, such as the skull and shoulder blades.

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81
Q

short bones

A

same width and length and offer limited mobility. The wrist and ankle bones are short bones.

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82
Q

sesamoid bones

A

small and round, and they are located in tendons to help strengthen joints that are often compressed, like the patella in the knee joint

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83
Q

Irregular bones

A

unique shape, like the vertebrae, for example

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84
Q

Pivot joints vs hinge

A

Pivot joints, like the neck bones, allow back-and-forth rotation.

Hinge will bend and straighten in one direction like the elbow.

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85
Q

Ellipsoidal joints

A

in the wrists, allow back-and-forth and up-and-down motion.

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86
Q

Compact bone

A

The outer layer of bone and it has networks of arteries and veins running through it.

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87
Q

spongy bone

A

inner layer
The holes and spaces in the spongy bone allow the bone to be strong without being as heavy as solid bone would be. It also allows room for the bone marrow, which produces red and white blood cells and platelets.

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88
Q

Bones function

A

framework for the body itself, protect organs, produce red and white blood cells in the marrow, and store calcium, iron, and fat.

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89
Q

Right hypochondriac

A

right kidney, liver, gallbladder, and small intestine

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90
Q

Epigastric

A

stomach, liver, adrenal glands, pancreas, spleen, small
intestine

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91
Q

Left hypochondriac

A

left kidney, spleen, pancreas, and colon

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92
Q

right lumbar

A

ascending colon, liver, gallbladder

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93
Q

umbilical

A

small intestine, duodenum, umbilicus

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94
Q

left lumbar

A

descending colon, left kidney

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95
Q

right iliac

A

cecum, appendix

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96
Q

hypogastric

A

bladder, female internal reproductive organs, sigmoid colon

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97
Q

left iliac

A

descending and sigmoid colon

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98
Q

abdominal cavity

A

liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, intestine and kidney

ventral body cavity

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99
Q

pelvic cavity

A

bladder, sex organ, large intestine’s sigmoid colon and rectum

ventral body cavity

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100
Q

peritoneal cavity

A

ventral body cavity

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101
Q

thoracic cavity

A

bove the diaphragm and contains the lungs and the mediastinum, which separates the cavity into a right and left compartment. The heart, trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland lie within the mediastinum.

ventral cavity

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102
Q

dorsal cavity

A

contains the brain and spinal cord, located on the dorsal side.

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103
Q

cranial cavity

A

brain, the 12 cranial nerves, and the pituitary gland.The meninges (comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain CSF between the arachnoid mater and pia mater

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104
Q

layers of brain

A
  1. pia mater is vascularized on the surface of brain and spinal cord
  2. middle layer is arachnoid - not vascularized or nerves. just CT
  3. vascularized dura mater most superficial and separates brain into compartments. (endosteal lines cranial bones, meningeal layer lines vertebral cavity)
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105
Q

vertebral cavity

A

vertebrae and spinal cord

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106
Q

conductive vs respiratory zone

A

respiratory is where actual gas exchange occurs

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107
Q

external vs internal respiration

A

External respiration is the exchange of gas between the lungs and the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of gas between the blood and tissues.

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108
Q

secondary functions of respiratory system

A

pH regulation of the blood, thermoregulation, odor detection, and the production of speech.

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109
Q

What ig is in mucosal lining in respiratory tract

A

IgA

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110
Q

lung from big to small

A

Each primary bronchus splits repeatedly into secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, and bronchioles to form the bronchial tree.

The terminal bronchioles further divide into respiratory bronchioles, which are characterized by the presence of some alveoli.

The respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts, which terminate in alveolar sacs.

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111
Q

what type of cells are in alveoli

A

type 1 squamous cells single layer lines the alevoli wall and they make up the majority. type 1 participates in gas exchange. type 2 cells are cuboidal that secrete surfactant to prevent alvoeli from collapsing. the alveolar walls are perforated in case of blocked ducts.
there’s also macrophages (lysosomes and cilia are located in upper respiratory tract)

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112
Q

how do capillary walls interact with alveoli

A

the basement membrane fuses together to form the respiratory membrane

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113
Q

expiration vs inspiration which is passive

A

expiration is passive. inspiration is using negative pressure breathing by contracting the diaphragm

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114
Q

cellular respiration formula

A

glucose + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H20

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115
Q

how does O2 and CO2 travel

A

most O2 binds to hemoglobin in RBCs. some dissolves in the blood.
Most CO2 is in the form of bicarb. some dissolves in the blood but some can also bind to hemoglobin.

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116
Q

True or false, lipids can travel in blood by themselves

A

false. must use a carrier protein

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117
Q

how is thermoregulation controlled by the brain

A

hypothalamus is the thermometer

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118
Q

Epicardium, myocardium, endocardium

A

epicardium, which protects the heart and secretes lubricating serous fluid.

The middle layer is the muscular myocardium, which contracts to pump blood.

The innermost layer is the endocardium, which lines the chambers and valves.

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119
Q

Endothelium - composition

found in blood BV and heart

A
  • single layer of squamous endothelial cells that are connected by tight junctions and adherens junctions. This allows the endothelium to act as a selectively permeable barrier
  • The smoothness of the endothelium reduces friction between the blood and the vessel wall.
  • Endothelial cells also play a role in vasoconstriction by releasing peptides called endothelins that cause the smooth muscle within the vessel walls to contract. They also
  • secrete chemicals that inhibit the coagulation of blood, but if the endothelium is damaged, they release different chemicals required for clot formation.
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120
Q

electrical circuit in heart

A

SA generates (P, atrium contr), AV node (PR), bundle of His and bundle branches, Purkinje fibers (QRS and ventricles contr)

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121
Q

How to calculate HR on an EKG

A

count the number of squares between cardiac cycles (P1 to P2) in sex seconds and multiply by 10

122
Q

the walls of all blood vessels contain which three layers, excluding capillaries

A

tunica intima (endothelial cells, elastic fibers)
tunica media (smooth muscle, elastic))
tunica adventitia (outermost)

123
Q

which arteries are elastic

A

aorta, its major branches
tunica media has most of the elastin

124
Q

which arteries are muscular

A

arteries that branch off elastic arteries. tunica media contains the most smooth muscle cells and least elastic fibers

125
Q

arterioles composition

A

right before capillaries
tunic amedia is very thin but contains ONLY smooth muscle

126
Q

venules composition

A

Tiny vessels that exit the capillary beds. Thin, porous walls; few muscle cells and elastic fibers

right after capillaries

127
Q

veins composition

A

Thin tunica media and tunica intima, wide lumen, valves prevent backflow of blood

128
Q

blood pressure drops the most at

A

the arterioles

129
Q

blood pressure is lowest at

A

the vena cava

130
Q

turbulence versus laminar flow

A

turbulence occurs when high velocity encounters an obstruction or when the vessels take a sharp turn or narrow suddenly.

laminar flow is the steady, streamlined flow of blood that occurs throughout most of the circulatory system.

131
Q

capillaries composition

A

epithelial cells and basement membrane

132
Q

how does transport work across a continuous capillary

A

Gases and lipid-soluble substances can cross the
endothelial cell membranes by simple diffusion, but ions and large particles often require the help of transport proteins or vesicular transport. Sometimes materials move through intercellular clefts: channels between adjacent endothelial cells.

133
Q

describe fenestrated capillaries

A

Fenestrated capillaries have pores that increase their
permeability and are found in the kidneys and small intestine.

134
Q

describe sinusoid capillaries

A

Sinusoidal capillaries have a discontinuous endothelium that permits the passage of large particles and even blood cells. They
are the most permeable of the capillaries.

135
Q

Plasma and elements are what %

and the contents

A

55% plasma (albumin, antibodies, proteins, carbs, lipids, salts, waste, gases, hormones)

45% elements (RBC, WBC, platelets)

136
Q

Hematocrit? and percentage for M and F

A

hematocrit is the percent of RBCs by volume
42 F
46 M

137
Q

how much of the formed elements are WBC and platelets

A

1%

138
Q

Ratio of platelets to WBC

A

40 to 1 (platelets 40)

138
Q

where is erythropoietin made

A

liver and kidneys

139
Q

cell line of erythroblasts

A

myeloid stem cells, erythroblasts, reticulocytes, erythrocytes

left is immature, right is mature

140
Q

how is RBC reproduction initiated

A

erythropoietin swims through to the red bone marrow

141
Q

What is the composition of reticulocytes

A

some ER
no nuclei
lose the ER after 1-2 days to form mature erythrocytes

142
Q

How long before phagocytes eat old RBCs

A

120 d or 4 months, located in the spleen, liver, BM

143
Q

composition of hemoglobin

A

four globin polypeptide chains and heme groups
iron in the heme group

144
Q

what is old iron and heme from phagocytized RBCs stored as

A

ferritin (iron)
bilirubin (heme) –> bile excreted

145
Q

Color of basophils

A

black by basic stains

146
Q

Eosinophils

A

red by acid stain

147
Q

neutrophils

A

pale lilac by neutral stains

148
Q

Granulocytes maturation series

A

myeloid progenator
Myeloblast
Promyelocyte
Myelocyte
Metamyelocyte - kidney shaped
Band - drum stand shaped
Segmented cells (2-5 joined lobes)

149
Q

Mast cells

A

red/purple
toludine blue

149
Q

Monocyte maturation series

A

Myeloid progenitor
Monoblast (12-20 mm) with large oval nucleus and lymphoid dendritic cells
Promonocyte (from monoblast)
Monocyte
Macrophage and myeloid dendritic cell

149
Q

how much of the white blood cells are granulocytes

A

75%

150
Q

Lymphocyte

A

Common lymphoid progenitor
Lymphoblast (10-20 mm) with large round nucleus
Prolymphocyte
Small lymphocyte and natural killer cell
B and T lymphocytes (from small lymphocyte)

151
Q

Extrinsic clotting mechanism

A

faster.
damaged tissue releases thromboplastin, which triggers a cascade of reactions that results in the production of an enzyme called prothrombin activator

152
Q

Intrinsic pathway clotting mechniasm

A

When blood encounters a foreign substance or tissue, the Hageman factor (also called coagulation factor XII) is activated, leading to the production of prothrombin activator. From here, the clotting pathways are the same.

153
Q

From prothrombin, both intrinisic and extrinsic cause

A

Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin using calcium as a cofactor. Thrombin splits fibrinogen to form fibrin but also stimulates its own production (a positive feedback loop). Fibrin is a fibrous protein that forms a mesh-like network that traps more platelets and red blood cells. This forms a clot that seals the injured region of the blood vessel.

153
Q

What is heme

A

heme group consists of a single iron atom surrounded by a complex organic ring called protoporphyrin
gives blood its red color

154
Q

hemoglobin structure

A

four polypeptide chains known as globin (two alpha chains and two beta chains)
each chain has a heme group
becomes oxyhemoglobin when oxygenated
4 iron atoms for 4 oxygen atoms
CO2 can bind but not to iron (carbaminohemoglobin)

154
Q

How is heart rate slowed

A

The parasympathetic division has the opposite effect. The vagus nerves that innervate the heart release acetylcholine (ACh), which slows the heart rate.

155
Q

What do central and peripheral chemoreceptors monitor in HR

A

pH, CO2, and O2

155
Q

deglutition

A

swallowing

155
Q

How is CO2 transported and in what amounts

A

70% in bicarb
23% in hemoglobin
rest is dissolved in the plasma

156
Q

How is BP regulated

A

baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid arteries (both of which detect high blood pressure) and also the venae cavae, pulmonary veins, and atrial walls (all of which detect low blood pressure)

157
Q

What is the process of swallowing both voluntary and involuntary

A

the voluntary buccal phase and the involuntary pharyngeal and esophageal phases.

158
Q

How many layers does the muscularis external have

A

three layers, except for the stomach which has two layers

159
Q

How does propulsion work in the GI

A

radial contraction and then relax to propel in one direction
happens during swallowing too from pharynx to esophagus
its called peristalsis

160
Q

define segmentation

A

non adjacent contractions to move food (chyme) back and fourth, and it only happens in the intestines

in the HOUSE - houstral contractions in the large intestine to move from ONE HOUSE to the NEXT HOUSE

161
Q

What is mass peristalsis

A

occur two to four times a day to push large amounts of chyme toward the rectum

162
Q

What spincters are located in the GI

A

gastroesophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter, and anal sphincters

163
Q

What enzymes are in the saliva

A

Amylase (carbs)
Lipase (fats)
Lysozymes & IgA (bacteria)

164
Q

Other components in saliva

A

Bicarb
Mucin (for gel that coats the bolus)

165
Q

Esophagus wall layers

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, adventitia

Muscularis Externa on top 1/3 skeletal
in middle mixed
on bottom 1/3 smooth muscle

166
Q

GI muscularis externa is made of

A

smooth muscle

167
Q

Esophageal sphincters

A

superior and inferior

168
Q

Primary role of the stomach

m

A

mechanical breakdown (3-4h) and storage of food
digestions uses unique third muscularis externa layer (oblique)
some chemical digestion
after food mixed with gastric juice, its called chyme

169
Q

inner surface of stomach

A

its called mucosa, and forms rugae which allows expansion
can hold 1 L typically but up to 4L

170
Q

Four types of cells for secretion in stomach

A

mucous cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and endocrine cells

171
Q

Endocrine cells

A

G cells - release gastrin (hormone) into the blood and does not contribute to gastric juices

172
Q

Parietal cells

A

secrete intrinsic factor, to absorb vitamen B12 in the SI
releases HCl (1-3 pH)
acidic environment to activate pepsinogen needed by chief cells

173
Q

Chief cells

A

secrete pepsinogen
pepsin is the active form, requires HCl to activate
breaks down proteins into peptide chains
secrete gastric lipase

174
Q

mucous cells

A

secrete bicarb esque mucous to protect the lining of stomach from acid

175
Q

Where does most protein and fat digestion take place

A

SI

176
Q

which spincter is involved in reflux

A

lower esophageal sphincter or cardioesophageal spincter

177
Q

Fundus

A

most superior section of stomach

178
Q

Layers of stomach superficial to deep

A

serosa, muscularis externa (3 layers), mucosa

muscularis external outermost is longitudinal, middle is circular, inner is oblique layer

179
Q

Cardiac region of stomach

A

proximal to esophageal opening, the part of the stomach that food first makes contact with

180
Q

Parts of the pylorus

A

The pylorus is the inferior part of the stomach proximal to the duodenum. the widest part is the pyloric antrum. the narrowest part is the pyloric canal. pyloric sphincter is the valve

181
Q

The liver has how many lobes

A

4

182
Q

Bile -

made? function? composed of?

A

Made in the liver. bile salts made from cholesterol
Emulsfying fats into micelles in stimach (fats then further broken down by lipase in SI)
composed of bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, electrolytes.
absorption of ADEK

183
Q

Bile - stored?

A

gallbladder
CCK triggered when food enters SI –> bile squeezed into common bile duct + pancreatic duct. then it becomes the hepatopancreatic ampulla of vater and spills into duodenum via duodenal papilla.

184
Q

What happens to ammonia

A

the liver recognizes it as a toxin. it is a waste product of amino acids. it gets conversted to urea.

Urea travels to the kidneys to be excreted.

185
Q

pancreas secretes what

A
  • insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
  • digestive enzymes (amylase digests starch, lipase fats)
  • CCK (acinar cells) to release bile, secretin bicarb (duct cells) to lower pH
  • proteases in an inactive form (activated at the site of SI) - trypsin, carboxypeptidases A and B, chymotrypsin
  • Nucleases
186
Q

Brush border enzymes

A

embedded in microvilli of apical cells in GI (actin filaments that push out the GI to incr SA)

they come from both pancreas and the enzymes in the gut

187
Q

Where does the absorption of water and food take place

for the most part

A

jejunum and ileum

188
Q

How are amino acids absorbed in the GI

A

cotransport with sodium into the intestinal cells

189
Q

how are sugars absorbed in the GI

A

cotransport with sodium into the intestinal cells

190
Q

1.

how are lipids absorbed in the GI

A

simple diffusion

191
Q

how is water abosrbed into the GI

A

simple diffusion

192
Q

how does food absorb overall into the GI and the body

A

taken into intestinal cells, then diffuse into capillaries within the villi and travel to the liver

193
Q

where does most chemical digestion occur?

A

SI
also where brush border enzymes are

194
Q

how much mechanical digestion takes place in the SI?

A

Some.

195
Q

name of the glands that secrete bicarb in the SI

A

Brunners
neutralizes acid chyme so that enzymes don’t denature

195
Q

Nucleosidase

A

nucleotide

195
Q

Dextrinase

A

substrate oligosaccharides

195
Q

Phosphatase

A

Nucleotide

196
Q

Glucoamylase

A

substrate oligosaccharide

197
Q

Jejunum

absorpion, digestion?

A

main site for absorption
long villi, dense microvilli

197
Q

How does the large intestine differ anataomically from the SI

A

It is larger in diameter than the small intestine, but much shorter in length—averaging 1.5 meter

There are no villi in the large intestine, but there are pouch-like sacculations called haustra that are separated by folds called plicae semilunares. These pouches are formed by the contraction of smooth muscle within the muscularis layer. The walls of the large intestine are lubricated by mucus, which is secreted by goblet cells.

197
Q

Duodenum - digestion, absorption roles

A

no absorption, except for iron

chemical digestion

197
Q

ileum

A

longest of the SI, but narrowest
Concentration of Peyer’s Patches
Absorb B12, bile salt, nutrients leftover
terminates at the ileocecal valve

198
Q

What does the large intestine absorb, and what is left over

A

vitamin K, biotin, sodium ions, chloride ions, and water.

By the time chyme reaches the large intestine, most of the water (approximately 80%) has already been absorbed by the small intestine.

As the chyme is pushed through the colon 90% of the remaining liquid is absorbed, leaving a mass of indigestible food, water, and bacteria.

199
Q

Describe the benefits of bacteria in the gut

A

The bacteria also release vitamin K, biotin, thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin B12. Vitamin K (required for the synthesis of clotting proteins) and biotin (a cofactor for many enzymes) are absorbed for use in the body.

Resident gut flora also help to keep populations of pathogenic bacteria in check. The appendix may serve as a reservoir for beneficial species of bacteria, though it is often infected with harmful microbes.

200
Q

where is the appendix

A

larged in the large intestine, at the cecum

201
Q

What spincters are in the anal canal

A

The anal canal is the last portion of the rectum, and it ends with an involuntary internal sphincter and a voluntary external sphincter.

202
Q

Where are feces stored

A

A dilated region (superior to the anal canal) called the rectal ampulla functions as a storage area for feces before they are eliminated in the process of defecation.

203
Q

What is inside of feces

A

bacteria, water, undigested material, epithelial cells, and bile (which accounts for the brown coloration).

204
Q

How do the sphincters work

A

As this material accumulates, the walls of the rectum expand and stretch receptors send signals that cause the rectal muscles to contract, the internal sphincter to relax, and the external sphincter to contract. At this point, the decision can be made to eliminate or delay elimination.

205
Q

Submucosal plexus

A

embedded in the connective tissue of the submucosa. It functions in regulating local secretions, absorption, contraction of submucosal muscle, and blood flow

206
Q

Myenteric Plexus

A

located between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa. This network exerts control over the motility of the GI tract.

increases the tone, as well as the rate, intensity, and velocity of contractions.

207
Q

If you cut off the brain and spinal cord, would the gut still work?

A

Yes, it operates independently

208
Q

Preganglionic neurons in the parasym and sym nervous system release what

A

Ach

209
Q

what do postganglionic neurons in the symp and parasympath release

A

sym - norepinephrine
parasym - ach

210
Q

mechanoreceptors list

A
  • Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s disks, Pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings
  • muscle spindles that detect stretching of skeletal muscle
  • receptors of the inner ear that detect vibrations.
211
Q

chemoreceptors

A

olfactory and taste receptors

212
Q

Nocicepotrs

A

detect pain

212
Q

exteroceptors

A

near the body surface transmit information about the external environment.

212
Q

proprioceptors

A

within the inner ear, skeletal muscles, and joints provide information about movement, position, and equilibrium.

213
Q

What kind of pathways does the autonomic division use

A

two neuron pathways

213
Q

Interoceptors

A

of visceral organs and blood vessels provide information about internal stimuli.

214
Q

Phasic adaptation

A

quickly adapt to a constant stimulus, meaning that action potentials decrease over time and eventually stop. This explains the loss of sensation of clothes against the skin, or how an odor seems to disappear when the source is still present. Most tactile and chemoreceptors are phasic.

214
Q

Somatic division structure of neurons

A

All motor neurons of the somatic division run directly from the CNS to the effector without synapsing with another neuron.

215
Q

Hypothalamus to pituitary or vice versa?

A

pituitary is the second stop, or most inferior

215
Q

Tonic adapatation

A

adapt slowly, constantly alerting the CNS of the stimulus with action potentials. Proprioceptors (receptors that provide feedback about position and movement of the body) are tonic receptors, as are photoreceptors (light-detecting receptors) and nociceptors (pain receptors).

215
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

change in sensitivity that occurs when receptors are exposed to a prolonged stimulus.

phasic or tonic

216
Q

Hindbrain

A

medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons

217
Q

Midbrain

A

integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals.

218
Q

forebrain

A

cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus

218
Q

cerebral cortex

A

thin layer of** grey matter** covering the cerebrum. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, with each responsible for multiple functions. The brain is divided into four main lobes, the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobes.

219
Q

parietal lobe

A

located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head and is responsible for sensory input as well as spatial positioning of the body

220
Q

occipital lobe

A

ocated at the back of the head just above the brain stem. This lobe is responsible for visual input, processing, and output; nerves from the eyes enter directly into this lobe.

220
Q

temporal lobe

A

all auditory input, processing, and output.

221
Q

cerebellum

A

role in the processing and storing of implicit memories. Specifically, for those memories developed during classical conditioning learning techniques and any automatic responses.

221
Q

brainstem

A

midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata are the three parts of the brain stem.

respiratory, digestive, and circulatory functions

222
Q

Name the cranial nerves 1 through 12

A

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal

222
Q

meninges

A

comprised of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) line the cavity and surround the brain and the spinal cord and contain cerebrospinal fluid between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the subarachnoid space. The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid protect and cushion the dorsal cavity.

223
Q

Which cranial nerves are both sensory and motor

A

Trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus

224
Q

cranial cavity

A

contains the brain, the 12 cranial nerves, and the pituitary gland.

225
Q

which cranial nerves are only motor

A

oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, accessory, hypoglossal

226
Q

CN adjusts pupil and lens of eye

A

oculomotor 3

227
Q

chewing

A

trigeminal, 5

228
Q

facial sensation

A

trigeminal

229
Q

facial expression

A

facial, 7

230
Q

taste other than ant 2/3 of tongue

A

glossopharyngeal

231
Q

anterior two/thirds of tongue

A

facial

232
Q

swallowing

A

glossopharyngeal (9), hypoglossal (12) and accessory (11)

233
Q

saliva CN

A

glossopharyngeal

233
Q

control of peripheral nervous system

A

vagus (10)

233
Q

tongue motor, speech

A

hypoglossal, 12

233
Q

sight

A

optic, 2

234
Q

movement of the head and neck

A

accessory

235
Q

smell

A

olfactory, 1

236
Q

what encloses the vertebral cavity

A

meninges

236
Q

spinal cord composition

A

exterior layer of white matter that surrounds an interior core of grey matter

237
Q

[](htt

vertebral cavity contains

A

vertebrae and spinal cord

238
Q

grey matter in spinal cord

A

Grey matter consists mostly of interneurons, but also contains motor neurons and glial cells. (The axons are mostly unmyelinated, giving the tissue its grey appearance.)
The cell bodies of afferent neurons reside in dorsal root ganglia, just outside the spinal cord.

238
Q

white matter in spinal cord

A

glial cells and myelinated bundles of axons that form tracts to and from the brain.

  • There are no cell bodies or dendrites in white matter.
239
Q

afferent vs efferent nerve fiber pathways

A

Afferent fibers enter into the posterior/dorsal aspect of the spinal cord (a region called the posterior grey horn) through the anterior root, while efferent fibers exit on the anterior/ventral aspect (the anterior grey horn) through the posterior root.

240
Q

unique organelle to neurons

A

Granular Nissl bodies (made of rough ER and clusters of free ribosomes) synthesize proteins for use within the cell.

240
Q

spinal cord anatomy:

which side is the ganglia on? what does that side look like?

A

the tail of the butterfly is the posterior side w/ the dorsal root ganglion on that side. the grey is on the inside, white is on the outside. the ends are called ‘horns’.the white area superficial to it is the funiculus. anterior median sulcus is the crack in the front. posterior median sulcus is the buttcrack.

241
Q

polysynaptic reflex

A

brain can override reflex
interneurons

241
Q

monosynaptic reflex.

A

don’t involve the brain
can’t stop the reflex from happening
direct connection between sensory and motor

241
Q

the posterior pituitary houses what

A

The hypothalamus produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), but
these hormones are stored in and secreted by the posterior pituitary.

242
Q

schwann cell

A

myelin sheath of peripheral neurons
they are a type of glial cells that form lipid rich layers
the nucleus and cytoplasm is outside of the sheath

243
Q

part of a cell that is absent in neurons

A

centrioles in mature neurons. they can’t divide

244
Q

what type of neurons are unipolar

A

sensory

245
Q

what type of neurons are pseudounipolar

A

sensory

245
Q

where are bipolar neurons

A

retina and inner ear

245
Q

what neurons are multipolar

A

motor and interneurons

246
Q

where does the axon emerge

A

axon hillock

247
Q

what is the cytoplasm of the axon called

A

axoplasm

248
Q

what does the axoplasm lack

A

golgi, nissl, and ribosomes
protein translation

249
Q

what are collaterals

A

axon splits and it allows neurons to interact with multple other cells

250
Q

non-myelinating schwann cells

A

when the axons are super skinny

250
Q

neurilemmal sheath

A

in the outer neurilemmal sheath of a schwann cell is where the nucleus and cytoplasm are.

(neurons)

251
Q

what is responsible for mylein sheath of CNS

A

oligodendrocytes

251
Q

what is different about oligodendrocytes

A

they can myelinate tons of axons

252
Q

conditions from damaged myelin

A

MS
leukodystrophies

252
Q

white or grey matter in the CNS

A

mostly white in the CNS

white in the CNS is myelinated

grey matter is unmylinated

253
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

uninsulated gaps between myelinated portions of the axon

254
Q

downsides of myelinated axons

A

less neuroplasticity

254
Q

can glial cells divide?

A

yes

nearly all brain tumors come from them

254
Q

are there more glial cells or neurons?

A

glial cells

254
Q

glial cells in PNS

A

schwann, satellite

254
Q

glial cells in CNS

A

astro,micro,oligo, ependy

255
Q

astrocytes

A
  • most abundant
  • anchor
  • helps exchange of meterials between capillaries and neurons
  • uptake of excess ions
256
Q

microglia

A

few extensions
phagocytes - dead debris and immune

257
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

extensions wrap around axons of CNS neurons
mylein sheath

258
Q

ependyma

A

epithelial lining of ventricles
central canal of spinal cord
CSF circulate between brain and spinal cord

259
Q

Schwann cells

A

produce myelin sheath that insulate PNS

260
Q

Synapse that is axodendritic

A

terminate on the dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron

261
Q

axosomatic

A

terminates on a POSTsynaptic soma

262
Q

axoaxonic

A

synapse that is rare. terminates on a POSTsynaptic axon.

263
Q
A

TEAS (5 decks)

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