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1-5 | learning & memory > task 2 > Flashcards

task 2 Flashcards

1
Q

episodic memory

A
  • “I remember”
  • for specific autobiographical events
  • includes information about spatial & temporal contexts in which event occurred

> inference effect: repeated exposure weakens it

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2
Q

semantic memory

A
  • “I know”
  • for facts/general knowledge about world
  • -> incl. general personal information
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3
Q

episodic declarative semantic

A

SIMILARITIES

  • can be communicated flexibly
  • -> in a format other than that in which it was acquired
  • consciously accessible

DIFFERENCES:

  • EP: tagged with spatial/temporal context
  • SEM: NOT NECESSARILY tagged with spatial/temporal context
  • EP: you must have experienced the event personally
  • SEM: can be PERSONAL or GENERAL information
  • EP: learned in a SINGLE EXPOSURE
  • SEM: can be learned in a single exposure, but can also be STRENGTHENED BY REPETITION
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4
Q

declarative memory

A
  • broad class of memories
  • incl. episodic & semantic
  • can typically be verbalised/explicitly communicated in some other way
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5
Q

nondeclarative memory

A
  • broad class of memory
  • incl. skill memory & other types of learning (NOT episodic/semantic)
  • -> not always consciously accessible/easy to verbalise
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6
Q

explicit memory

A
  • incl. episodic & semantic memory
  • consists of memories the person is aware of
  • -> “you know that you know”
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7
Q

implicit memory

A
  • memory that occurs without the learner’s awareness
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8
Q

Can nonhumans have episodic and semantic memory?

A

yes!

  • it is possible to account for episodic/semantic memory in animals
  • -> radial arm maze (rat goes straight for the arm in the maze where the food was the last times)
  • -> birds hiding their food
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9
Q

three distinct life stages of both memories

A
  1. ACQUISITION
    - information must be encoded or put in memory
  2. RETENTION
    - memory must be retained or kept in mind/memory
  3. RECALL
    - memory must be retrieved when needed
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10
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories (5)

A
  • relation: new information <> preexisting context
  • deeper processing at encoding improves recognition later
  • recency effect
  • relation: retrieval context <> encoding context
  • relation: recall <> possible cues
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11
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories

–> RELATION: NEW INFORMATION <> PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

A
  • easier to remember information we can interpret in context of things we already know

study:
- participants were separated in 3 groups
- task: read paragraph and recall items afterwards
- (1) no picture (2) saw picture in beforehand (3) saw picture afterwards
» groups performance (best>worst): (2) / (3) / (1)

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12
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories

–> DEEPER PROCESSING AT ENCODING IMPROVES RECOGNITION LATER

A

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING EFFECT:
- deeper processing (semantic meaning) leads to better recall of information than shallow processing (spelling/pronunciation)

study:
1. participants were shown words and had to decide if it was either (1) animate or inanimate or (2) if first and last letter were in alphabetical order or not
2. afterwards they were presented with a list of words and had to state of each word was presented in beforehand or not
» condition (1) recognised many more words than condition (2)

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13
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories

–> RECENCY EFFECT

A
  • we are more likely to remember events that happened recently than such that happened long ago
  • if we can remember facts/events after months > most likely to remember it permanently
  • CONSOLIDATION PERIOD:
  • -> characteristic of episodic/semantic memory
  • -> period during which new memories are vulnerable and easily lost
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14
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories

–> RELATION: RETRIEVAL CONTEXT <> ENCODING CONTEXT

A
  • processing during encoding might only help if retrieval also requires that type of processing
  • -> recall is better when retrieval context is similar to encoding context

TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING:
- retrieval is more likely if cues that are available during recall are similar to cues that were available during encoding
- performance is worse when recall and encoding formats differ
=> context has powerful impact on memory retrieval

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15
Q

factors that affect life stages of both memories

–> RELATION: RECALL <> AVAILABLE CUES

A
  • the more cues the better the recall:
    > FREE RECALL:
    –> test to generate information from memory
    –> no explicit cues = hardest one
    > CUED RECALL:
    –> test in which some kind of prompt is given
    –> some cues are provided
    > RECOGNITION:
    –> multiple choice test
    –> entire item is provided = easiest one
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16
Q

memory failures

A
  • interference
  • false memory
  • source amnesia (source monitoring error)
17
Q

memory failures

–> INTERFERENCE

A
  • when to memories overlap
  • -> strength of either or both memories may be reduced

> proactive interference:
- disruption of new learning by previously stored information
retroactive interference:
- disruption of old (previously stored) information by new learning

18
Q

memory failures

–> SOURCE AMNESIA (source monitoring error)

A
  • remembering information but being mistake about the specific episode of that is source of memory

> cryptomnesia
- person mistakenly thinks that his cureent thoughts/ideas are new/original

19
Q

memory failures

–> FALSE MEMORY

A
  • memory of an event that never actually happened

- tend to occur when people are prompted to imagine missing details

20
Q

directed forgetting

A
  • procedure in which subject first asked to learn information and later asked to remember or forget specific items
  • memory is worse for items a subject was directed to forget
21
Q

cerebral cortex and semantic memory

A
  • semantic memories are stored in the cerebral cortex
  • semantic networks are organised by object properties

SENSORY CORTEX:

  • areas in
  • -> parietal lobe: somatosensory cortex
  • -> occupital lobe: visual cortex
  • -> superior temporal lobe: auditory cortex

ASSOCIATION CORTEX:

  • other cortical areas involved in association information within and across modalities
  • -> links visual information with the semantic and linguistic information of a word
  • cortical damage leads to display agnosia
  • -> selective disruption of ability to process particular information
22
Q

medial temporal lobes and memory storage

A
  • incl. hippocampus / amygdala / nearby cortical areas
  • lobes are intimately involved in memory encoding
  • can distinguish between true episodic memory from false ones

> PATIENT H.M.

  • radial arm maze > rats have trouble remembering which arms they’ve already visited on trial
23
Q

patient H.M.

A
  • had epileptic seizures since childhood that became debilitating
  • brain surgery: doctors removed medial temporal lobes bilaterally
    » seizures declined in frequency/severity but ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
24
Q

anterograde vs. retrograde amnesia

A

ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
- severe loss of ability to form new episodic and semantic memories

RETROGRADE AMNESIA:

  • loss of memories for events dating before brain injury/disruption
  • memory loss in time-graded manner:
  • -> more recent ones are devastated but older ones may be spared
25
Q

medial temporal lobes and memory storage

–> HIPPOCAMPAL FUNCTION IN HEALTHY BRAIN

A
  • critical for forming new memories
  • -> when damaged: still able to form new semantic memories
  • needed to:
  • -> ENCODE informations
  • -> RETAIN/consolidate them
  • -> RETRIEVE them
  • -> any combination of these

SUBSEQUENT FORGETTING PARADIGM:
- fMRI records participant during learning and recognising task
» left medial temporal lobe: more activity during initial learning of words that are subsequently remembered
–> the greater the activity > greater the storage > more likely the information will be retrieved later
–> only words activate left part (picture: bilateral)

DEPTH OF PERCEPTION
» hippocampus helps linking memories of objects with unique spatial/temporal context, in which they were experienced

26
Q

memory consolidation

–> retrograde vs. anterograde amnesia

A

RETROGRADE AMNESIA:
- loss of memories for events that occurred BEFORE brain damage

ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
- loss of ability to form new episodic memories SINCE brain damage

  • ribot gradient = pattern of memory loss
  • bilateral medial temporal lobe damage = retrograde & anterograde amnesia
  • damage goes beyond hippocampus into nearby cortex > retrograde amnesia is more severe
27
Q

standard theory of memory consolidation

A
  • category of processes that stabilise a memory trace after its initial acquisition
  • divided into two different processes:
    (1) synaptic consolidation
    (2) system consolidation
28
Q

standard theory of memory consolidation

–> SYNAPTIC CONSOLIDATION

A
  • prolonged strengthening of synaptic transmission
  • produces increase in neurotransmitter production & receptor sensitivity
  • contributing factor to synaptic plasticity & growth of synaptic strength

> LATE-PHASE LONG-TERM CONSOLIDATION:

  • form of plasticity
  • occurs within first few hours after learning
  • -> faster than system consolidation
29
Q

standard theory of memory consolidation

–> SYSTEM CONSOLIDATION

A
  • memories from hippocampus region move to neo-cortex in more permanent form of storage
  • can take 1-2 decades to be fully formed in humans

STANDARD MODEL OF SYSTEM CONSOLIDATION:
1.
- new information is first ENCODED & REGISTERED in hippocampus
2.
- hippocapus TEACHES cortex more and more about information
- once information is recalled: hippocampus strengthens cortico-cortical connection > making memory HIPPOCAMPUS-INDEPENDENT
3.
- after 1 week: memory is TRANSFERRED to NEO-CORTEX
- there it becomes PERMANENTLY STORED > CONSOLIDATION
=> predicts GRADED retrograde amnesia: old memories had chance to become consolidated

> > HIPPOCAMPUS’ cortical plasticity is FAST (synapses change quickly) > only supports memories TEMPORARILY
NEOCORTICAL plasticity is LOW (synapses change over time) > can support memory INDEFINITELY

30
Q

multiple trace theory (MTT)

A
  • build on distinction between semantic & episodic memory
  • addresses shortcomings of model of system consolidation with respect to dependency of hippocampus
  • it argues: hippocampus is always involved in retrieval/storage of episodic memory
  • -> proper hippocampal functioning is necessary for retention/retrieval of episodic memory but LESS during encoding/use of semantic ones
  • -> episodic & semantic memories rely on hippocampus
  • —> latter one becomes independent of hippocampus during consolidation
  • predicts FLAT retrograde amnesia: there are no true memories

DIFFERENCES TO STANDARD MODEL:

  • at end of process hippocampus remains part of memory trace
  • -> sptial memory is part of episodic memory & hippocampus provides spatial context
31
Q

differences between episodic & semantic memories based on MTT

A
    • epi. mem. come first
    • however, not all sem. mem. have to be episodic first
    • epi. mem. are rich in personal context
    • sem. mem. are without context & depersonalised
    • epi. mem. rely significantly on hippocampal system
    • sem. mem.ultimately do not require hippocampus
32
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A
  • patients with retrograde amnesia
  • they deny that anything is wrong with them
  • -> make up false memories to fill in gaps (=CONFABULATION)
  • they are disorientated in time & space
  • main cause: lack of vitamine thiamine
  • damage in brain:
    –> basal frontal lobes (not the case for patients with amnesia)
    –> mammillary bodies: shrunk & disease
    –> dorsomedial thalamus
    » temporal lobe structures (incl. hippocampus) are intact
33
Q

Patient N.A.

A
  • damage to dorsomedial thalamus (medial diencephalon)
  • patient is primarily amnesic for verbal material
  • normal short-term memory
  • impairment in forming declarative memory (but not non-declarative memory)
34
Q

different types of memories

A

EXPLICIT MEMORY (what)

  • declarative memory
  • requires more concentrated effort to bring to surface
  • involves both semantic & episodic memory

IMPLICIT MEMORY (how)

  • non-declarative, unconscious/automatic memory
  • uses past experiences to remember things without actively thinking about them

PROCEDURAL MEMORY

  • subset of implicit memory
  • part of long-term memory
  • responsible for knowing how to do things

1-5 | learning & memory (2 decks)

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