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1-5 | learning & memory > task 1 > Flashcards

task 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Atkinson’s & Shiffrin’s model

–> three distinctions among different kinds of memory

A
  1. sensory memory:
    - brief/transient sensations of what just has been perceived
    - information automatically/rapidly decays
    - -> information first flows into this memory
  2. short-term memory (STM)
    - temporary memory
    - can be maintained as long as its rehearsed/consciously attended to
    - -> elements of sensory information that are attended to are transitioned to STM
  3. long-term memory (LTM)
    - memories can be retained for long periods/permanently without requiring ongoing maintenance/conscious attention
    - -> memories go through process in STM and in some cases are transferred into LTM

=> CRITICISM:

  • when STM is damaged still some memories get stored in the LTM
  • doesn’t specify depth of processing needed
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2
Q

transient memory

A
  • nonpermanent memory that lasts seconds/minutes

- in Atkinson-Shiffrin model they correspond to the first two stages (sensory/STM)

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3
Q

sensory memory

A
  • sensory memory for every sensory modality
  • lasting very briefly
  • -> captures raw incoming sensory stimuli and passes it to STM store
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4
Q

STM

A
  • once sensory memory is recognised/registered > STM maintains information temporarily through active rehearsal
  • incoming information > sensory based iconic memory > STM if maintained through active rehearsal
  • ability to hold information limited:
  • -> limited in capacity: range from 5 to 9 items
  • -> limited to what we can pay attention to
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5
Q

iconic memory

A

critical for recognising and processing briefly present information

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6
Q

Sperling task

–> sensory memory

A
  • people are presented with 3x4 visual array
  • once latter is removed: one of three tones is played (high/medium/low) corresponding to the rows
  • participants are indicated to report row corresponding to tone
    –> 75% of letters are recalled (rather than 30-40% total array)
    => ICONIC MEMORY: persist for very short time but includes all items recently seen
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7
Q

transferring information from STM to LTM

A
  • repeated rehearsal is required to maintain information in STM but doesn’t ensure long-term storing
  • Depth of Processing: level of activity devoted to processing information
  • the MORE ACTIVELY we process new information (e.g. applying meaningful connections) the MORE LIKELY we are to remember it
  • passive rehearsal: good for STM but not sufficient for transferring information LTM
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8
Q

working memory

A
  • goal-directed

- involves temporary retention of information just experienced (sensory memory) or just retrieved from LTM

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9
Q

Baddeley’s model of working memory

A
  • consists of “central executive” that controls two memory buffers:
  • -> visuospatial sketchpat (VSS) > stores object/location material
  • -> phonological loop (PL) > stores verbal material
  • —> both are stored separately
  • distinction between two processes:
  • -> manipulation
  • -> maintenance
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10
Q

Baddeley’s model

–> MANIPULATION

A
  • depends on central executive
  • involves:
  • -> adding/deleting/selecting among items to guide behaviour
  • -> retrieving information from LTM
  • -> transferring it from VSS and PL to LTM (??)
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11
Q

Baddeley’s model

–> MAINTENANCE

A

requires rehearsal of information in two memory buffers

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12
Q

visuospatial sketchpat (VSS)

A
  • mental workspace for storing/manipulating both visual and spatial information
  • limited in its capacity
  • -> delayed nonmatch-to-sample task
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13
Q

delayed nonmatch-to-sample task

A
  1. monkey’s shown sample object and finds reward under it
  2. delay period: monkey’s view on test object is blocked
  3. food reward is hidden under new object ≠ original sample
  4. monkey chooses non-matching

> must learn to remember which unique sample was seen previously
must hold this information in visuospatial memory until presented with choice

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14
Q

phonological loop (PL)

A
  • maintains auditory memories by means of internal speech rehearsal
  • average phonological loop can retain 2 seconds worth of speech
  • internal/unspoken speech used during rehearsal is key to PL and working memory
  • -> if internal rehearsal is interrupted > storage cannot occur
  • -> internal speech proceeds at same rate as speech spoken aloud
  • word-length effect:
  • -> as length of words increases, number of rememberable words declines
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15
Q

Baddley’s model

–> relation of VSS and PL

A

> dual-task experiment:

  1. participants imagine a “*” travelling along the edges of an “F”
  2. whenever it turned a corner the participant had to signal whether it was an extreme or intermediate corner
  3. therefor, participants were separated into 3 groups:
    - > vocal group (“yes”/”no”) > fastest reaction time
    - > tapping (once/twice) > intermediate reaction time
    - > pointing (“Y”/”N”) > lowest reaction time

=> reaction times showed that the two capacities are independent of each other = filling up one does not affect capacity of the other

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16
Q

main functions of central executive (4)

A
  1. controlled updating of STM buffers
  2. setting goals and planning
  3. task switching
  4. stimulus selection and response inhibition
17
Q

main functions of the central executive

–> CONTROLLED UPDATING OF STM BUFFERS

A
  • does so by:
  • -> receiving/evaluating sensory information
  • -> moving items into & retrieving from the LTM
  • -> deciding which memories are needed for which task

> N-BAK TASK
- participant needs to remember N cards previously as the one presented atm
PETRIDES’ SELF-ORDERED MEMORY TASK
- participant needs to point at different items on every card with the same target set

18
Q

main functions of the central executive

–> SETTING GOALS AND PLANNING

A
  • keeping track of goals
  • planning how to achieve them
  • determining priorities

> TOWER OF HANOI

  • solving requires a lot of manipulation of working memory because we must remember:
    (1) what subgoals have been ACCOMPLISHED
    (2) what subgoals REMAIN
    (3) what is next subgoal to be ADDRESSED
19
Q

main functions of the central executive

–> TASK SWITCHING

A
  • requires manipulation of working memory
  • -> we must pay ATTENTION to ONGOING TASK while MONITORING EXTERNAL CUES for information that may signal need to SWITCH to another TASK

> WISCONSIN CARD SORT TEST:
- participant needs to sort card based on shape/colour/number while experimenter switches between rules of sorting

20
Q

main functions of the central executive

–> STIMULUS SELECTION AND RESPONSE INHIBITION

A
  • central executive allows:
  • -> to inhibit a habitual response
  • -> to shift attention to alternative/context-specific rule that we must remember

> STROOP TASK:
- participant needs to read a list of written colours (“red”/”blue”/etc.) but has to say out loud what colour those words are written as

21
Q

behavioural consequences of frontal-lobe damage

A
  • show deficits on all working-memory/executive-control tasks
  • in absence of executive-control system:
  • -> we are no longer guided by long-term goals/task-specific constraints
  • DYSEXECUTIVE SYNDROME:
    –> disrupted ability to think/plan/organise
    –> can be due to tumors/surgery/strokes
    » people become impulsive/easily influenced by momentary urges/ highly distractable
  • Wisconsin card sort test to assess frontal-lobe function
  • -> patients can learn initial sorting rule but are impaired at making transition = PERSEVERATION
22
Q

Goldman-Rakic’s eye gaze test

A
  • many PREFRONTAL-CORTEX NEURONES FIRE only during DELAY PERIOD when animals are required to maintain information about spatial location of object

=> SUGGESTING: PFC holds in information needed to make later response

23
Q

mapping Baddeley’s model onto PFC anatomy

A

dorsal and ventral regions of PFC perform qualitatively different processes:

VENTROLATERAL PFC:

  • supports encoding/retrieval of information
  • -> performing roles of VSS/PL (acc. to Baddeley’s model)
  • during encoding of new semantic information:
  • -> anterior regions: activated during tasks involving semantic processing
  • -> posterior regions: activated during phonological processing

DORSOLATERAL PFC:

  • supports higher-order executive-control: monitoring/manipulating stored information
  • -> central exectuive (acc. to Baddeley’s model)
  • dominant roles:
  • -> right DLPFC: monitoring processes
  • -> left DLPFC: verbal materials

LESIONS

  • produce severe deficits in temporal ordering which requires active manipulation of working memory
  • -> patients may show impairment in delay-response tasks
24
Q

mapping Baddeley’s model onto PFC anatomy

–> ANATOMICAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN VSS & PL

A
  • language tends to be left-lateralised in brain
  • -> damage to left PFC: deficits in verbal working memory

SPATIAL WORKING-MEMORY TASK (Smith & Jonides):
1. patients are presented with three dots arranged in random locations on display screen
2. delay period: dots disappear for 3 seconds
3. circle appears somewhere on screen
4. participant indicates if circle contains location of one of the previous dots
- experimental group: involves spatial memory & ability to encode spatial information
- control group: involves perceptual processing/not working memory
» spatial location tasks activate region in right hemisphere of premotor cortex
» object-identity tasks activate right DLPFC
=> spatial &object working memory are localised differently

25
Q

clinical perspective

–> SCHIZOPHRENIA

A
  • disturbance in working memory & executive control
  • -> DLPFC is dysfunctional / VLPFC is unimpaired
  • dopamine alters neurone-to-neurone communication
    –> patients have more D1 receptors in DLPFC than healthy people (try to compensate lack of dopamine release)
    –> patients with lots of D1 receptors show worst performance on assessment of working memory
    » link between dopamine regulation of DLPFC & working memory
  • COMT genes affect dopamine metabolism in frontal lobes
    –> genetic mutations affecting dopamine activity in PFC are related to emergence of cognitive deficits seen in schizophrenia
  • MUTATION of ONE KIND OF GENE causes SMALL CHANGE in cognitive performance / mutations in DIFFERENT KINDS OF GENES puts someone in HIGH-RISK category for schizophrenia
    » the more copies of COMT genes > the less prefrontal activity
26
Q

clinical perspective

–> ADHD

A
  • difficulty with working memory/executive control processes
  • involves dysfunction in PFC and its cortical/subcortical connections (incl. cerebellum/basal ganglia)
  • -> smaller right PFC region associated with spatial attention/working memory
  • genes associated with ADHD regulate function of dopamine in brain
    –> medications for ADHD alter (positively) dopamine function in cortex
    » effects are temporary
27
Q

three fundamental processes

A

ENCODING:
- information is translated into a mentally processable form
- we label it in various ways, before placing it into memory
» memory code:
–> is formed when information has been encoded in some manner
–> once information is transformed into memory code, it is stored

STORAGE:
- information is maintained in memory for some period of time
» memory store:
–> mental location in which encoded information is held

RETRIEVAL:

  • information is activated in a way that can influence other mental events/behaviour
  • -> if we cannot access information: encoded & stored information will not affect our cognitions/emotions/behaviours
28
Q

ARTICLE: Fuster & Alexander
–> neurone activity related to short-term memory
PROCEDURE

A
  • monkeys were trained and tested in performance of delayed response task
    1. sitting in front of test objects
    2. test objects: two identical wooden blocks
    3. cue period: monkey is presented with an apple that is put under one of the wooden blocks
    4. delay period: immediately after the monkeys sight is blocked
    5. response period: monkey can choose one object > if correct it can have reward
29
Q

ARTICLE: Fuster & Alexander
–> neurone activity related to short-term memory
FINDINGS

A
  • changes in firing frequency during DELAYED RESPONSE TASK:
  • -> most cells increase firing during cue presentation period or at beginning of ensuing delay
  • increased firing was in some units preceded by inhibitory phase
  • temporal patterns of firing frequency seen in prefrontal/thalamisc units during cue & delay periods
    » participation of these units in ACQUISITION and TEMPORARY STORAGE of SENSORY INFORMATION
  • excitatory reaction of neurones in MD (thalamus) & frontal cortex during delay response trials are related to FOCUSING OF ATTENTION on information placed in temporary memory storage for prospective utilisation
  • NO correlation was found between EYE MOVEMENT and UNIT ACTIVITY in areas of brain explored
30
Q

brain substrates of working memory

A

DORSOLATERAL PFC
» central executive

RIGHT VENTROLATERAL PFC
» visiospatial sketchpad

LEFT VENTROLATERAL PFC
» phonological loop
–> ANTERIOR: semantic information
–> POSTERIOR: phonological information

RIGHT POSTERIOR CORTICAL VISUAL AREAS
» object & location information

LEFT POSTERIOR CORTICAL SPEECH & LANGUAGE AREAS
» verbal information

=> STORAGE

1-5 | learning & memory (2 decks)

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