Task 2 Flashcards
What is working memory?
Refers to a system responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information
It functions as a mental workspace that can be flexibly used to support everyday cognitive abilities that require both processing and storage
WM is limited by the amount information needed to store and process
What are the main characteristics of working memory?
Temporary storage
Manipulation of information
Mental workspace
Limited storage capacity
Susceptible to distractions
What happens to stored information in the working memory when one is distracted (e.g. by another thought)?
Information gets completely lost, person has to start over
What are the four components and their associated functions of the Broadbent filter model?
Sensory store - holds a lot of information briefly
Attention filter - only stimuli containing certain physical characteristics are given attention & transferred to the WM.
Working memory - holds a few items
Long term memory: Storehouse of knowledge accumulated throughout the lifetime.
Describe Miller’s chunking model of working memory
Through the use of strategies (e.g. rehearsal), adults are able to retain up to 7 digits in WM, and only 3-4 without strategies.
Working memory is said to be a mental faculty where plans & subplans are remembered. One subplan may be carried out while another is kept in mind along with the master plan.
Describe the Baddeley & Hitch Working Memory model
Information are stored in different systems.
Central executive: controls the whole system & allocates which information is to be stored in the subsystems (i.e. phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad). It also handles cognitive tasks.
Episodic buffer: holds semantic info for short term & binding the association between phonological & visual/spatial info.
Visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye): stores & processes information in a visual or spatial form (e.g. navigation)
Phonological loop: it deals with spoken & written materials: there is a phonological store that processes speech perception & stores spoken words), and an articulation control process that processes speech production, and rehearsal strategies.
Describe the Cowan Model of Working memory
Working memory = short-term storage component
Its capacity is dependent on attention & other central executive processes (makes use of stored info or interacts with LTM.
Dissociatioons can occur depending on the similarity of features: it appears that visual irrelevant materials interfere with formation of visual imagery but not visual storage.
Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent
Name the different types of Working memory models
Broadbent Filter Model
Miller - Chunking
Baddeley & HItch - multistore model
Cowan Working memory model
Describe the central executive in Baddeley & Hitch’s model.
Central executive: controls the whole system & allocates which information is to be stored in the subsystems (i.e. phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad). It also handles cognitive tasks.
Describe the episodic buffer in Baddeley & Hitch’s model.
Episodic buffer: holds semantic info for short term & binding the association between phonological & visual/spatial info.
Describe the Visuospatial sketchpad in the Baddeley & Hitch model.
Visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye): stores & processes information in a visual or spatial form (e.g. navigation)
Describe the phonological loop in the Baddeley & Hitch Model
Phonological loop: it deals with spoken & written materials: there is a phonological store that processes speech perception & stores spoken words), and an articulation control process that processes speech production, and rehearsal strategies.
How does Cowan describe working memory?
Working memory can be conceptualized as a short-term storage component with a capacity that is heavily dependent on attention & other central executive processes that make use of stored information or that interact with long-term memory
Why does dissociations occur according to Cowan?
Dissociations can occur depending on the similarity of the features; it appears that visual irrelevant materials interfere with formation of visual imagery but not visual storage.
Describe Cowan’s attention filter.
Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent
Both Cowan & Broadbent talk about an attention filter. How do the attention filter in each model differ?
Cowan: Attention filter is internalized: info does not pass through a filter but all info activate the long-term memory to some extent
Broadbent: attention filter is used to determine which information is inputted to the WM.
Explain the long term and short term memory in Cowan’s model.
Short term memory is an aspect of LTM & LTM is an aspect of short term memory. If you put attention on something then it is WM.
Info stays in short term memory even if attention is not being paid to it.
Describe the limited capacity of focus in the Cowan model.
In short, the focus of attention is the set of highly activated long-term representations that are currently needed for ongoing processing. The focus is capacity limited and can be directed externally to incoming sensory information or internally to relevant long-term memory representations
Name two ways in which the working memory is limited according to Cowan.
How many items can be held at once: this is related to the ascribed attention
The amount of time for which an item remains in the WM when no longer rehearsed/refreshed/chunking/associations: this is ascribed to the activated portion of long term memory (limit up to 30s depending of tasks). – decay.
Describe the general trend of working memory development
Improvements in WM performance observed between 4 – 11 years
Linear increase in performance continues to about 12 years then it levels off towards 15 years.
Give some explanations for why working memory improves after 4 years of age.
Maturation of brain: faster processing speed easier to retain it
Better strategies with age (mnemonic processing)
Capacity improves: make better connections
Decay of items does not change over time: differences in decay don’t explain improvement in memory.
Number of memory slots increases with age.
Name three measures of working memory
Reading Span
Listening recall test - automated WM assessment
Working memory test battery for children
Describe the reading span test for WM.
participant makes judgements about the semantic properties of sentences while remembering the last word of each sentence in sequence.
Describe the Keep track task for measuring WM.
Participants shown several target categories on lower half of computer screen
Then presented with 16 words serially (2000msec per word)
Target categories remained on screen during each trial
Participants had to recall the last word presented in each target categories
Thus, they had to continuously select words that belong to the target categories to update their working memory.
Tammes et al. wanted to : investigate relationships between change in verbal working memory performance & change in cortical & subcortical volumes in a group of children & adolescents.
Describe their procedures & methods.
Longitudinal project: Neurocognitive Development
N: 8-19 years
79 children, 35 adolescents (girls)
Two time points
Keep track test, + Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence & MRI
What were the three main findings from Tammes et al’s study?
The degree of improvement in verbal WM performance decreased linearly over the investigated age range
WM development was related to cortical volume reduction in widespread frontal and parietal regions,
overlapping fronto-parietal network active in WM tasks
The relationships did not significantly interact with age.
Tammes et al found that WM development was associated with cortical reduction in several regions.
What were these regions?
Fronto & parietal regions
bilateral PFC, PP region, central sulci
What are some mnemonitc strategies that can be used to improve WM?
Rehearsal strategies
Elaborative strategies
Attentional refreshing
Chunking
Define cumulative rehearsal strategies.
repetition of the most recently presented word, and practicing it with the others
Define elaborative strategies.
are useful for long term learning. They involve making a coherent story based on the items.
Define attentional refreshing.
It is the act of bringing memory items in the focus of attention
Define chunking.
formation of new associations/recognition of existing ones in order to reduce the number of independent items to keep track in WM.
Why is working memory important in the classroom?
Reading,
Mathematics
Following rules
General learning
concept formation
Describe how WM relates to concept formation
New concepts are formed when existing concepts are joined/bound together. They are bound in the focus of attention.
These existing concepts must co-exist in the working memory for the concept to be formed.
Describe how WM relates to control processes in the classroom
Working is memory is related to one’s ability to stay on task
Individuals with low span have difficulties to stay on tasks that requires their focus of attention. Both low and high span-scoring individuals tend to not want to pay attention if a task is boring.
WM in TDC is said to predict their later reading achievement. Can WM be improved in children with reading disabilities?
no, because it is a sustained deficit
Explain why the relations between WM & mathematics are age-dependent
Verbal WM seems to be related to math in 7 year olds but not in adolescent population; this is because it plays a crucial role when children are younger
With age, other factors are more important: e.g. number knowledge and strategies
Explain how visuo-spatial memory is related to mathematics. And is visuo-spatial deficits in children related to WM?
Visuo-spatial memory is also linked with mathematical skills: they function as a mental blackboard to support number representation (e.g. in counting).
Those with deficits in visuo-spatial memory have less room to hold in mind relevant info
It is said that children with WM do not make improvement overtime. What interventions can be used to aid them with WM tasks?
Ensure that they can remember what they are doing (e.g. simple instructions, frequent repetition of questions)
Reduce WM demands for tasks that require both processing & storage of information
Break down tasks into separate steps
Help them develop effective strategies for coping with situations which they experience WM failures
Teach to the level of WM
How can teachers teach to the level of one’s WM capacity?
Adjust materials to fit the learner
Individual difference within an age group affect one’s ability of processing materials
The teacher must decide whether it is best to allow the student to use their current favoured strategy or instill a more effective strategy.
Considerations of cognitive load & cognitive development: high cognitive load may mean that the student is not able to follow instructions, however, too little cognitive load may lead to disengagement.
WM demands of language production do not always match the demands of the recipients’ language comprehension
Name three ways in which children with WM deficits can be helped to develop effective strategies for coping with situations in which they experience WM failures?
Encourage the child to ask for forgotten information where necessary
Training in the use of memory aids
Encouragement to continue with complex tasks rather than abandoning them
How can tasks be broken down into separate steps?
External memory aids (e.g. useful spellings displayed on the board)
Give them regular practice in the use of the aids in the context of simple activities with few WM demands.
Increase access to useful spellings (on their desks) – this will prevent them from losing their place in the writing task
How can WM demands be reduced for tasks that require both processing and storage of information?
For sentence writing, reduce the lexical complexity of the sentence (simplify vocabulary)
Simplify the syntax of the sentence (e.g. encourage the child to use simple structures, such as active subject-verb-object)
Reduce sentence length
How can the teacher ensure that the child can remember what they are doing?
Use brief & simple instructions
Frequent repetitions of instructions
Ask the child to repeat instructions
