taking action, protected areas

Question 1

protected areas

Answer 1

• traditionally main means through which conservation aims are achieved
• 260,000 protected areas in 2020
• mostly very small areas, especially terrestrial areas
• terrestrial and marine
• unevenly distributed
• lots of small terrestrial protected areas in Europe managed by small conservation organisations, make up networks, Natura 2000

Question 2

early designations (Late 19th century)

Answer 2

-concept of designated protected areas started in North America
- wildlife sanctuaries/refuges, protest wildlife
- nature monuments/reserves, protect landscapes, preserve areas important to national identity
- wilderness areas, preserve completely wild areas (mainly USA)
- country/state parks, protect open green spaces important for recreation
- game reserves, forest reserves, watershed protection forests etc to protect natural resources/ ecosystem services

Question 3

National Parks

Answer 3

• alignment of nature conservation with efforts to boost national identity
• important in defining post-colonial identity in UK by designating rural landscapes close to urban areas

Question 4

SSSIs

Answer 4

• developed by UK government in 1949
• designed to protect species or habitats that are unusual or of particular scientific importance
• applied to any area of land inside or outside preexisting protected areas including private land used for other purposes
• protection enforced by governmental bodies e.g. NRW

Question 5

international designations

Answer 5

• UNESCO convention on wetlands (1971), invited countries to designate wetlands of international importance
• EU Bird directive (1979) and habitats directive (1992), requires member states to designate SPAs (special protection areas ) and SACs (special areas of conservation)

Question 6

international designations, UNESCO world heritage convention

Answer 6

• 1972
• designation of world heritage sites, recognised to be of international importance (natural or cultural importance)
• encouraging protection through promise of global prestige and status
• many countries proposed existing national parks, Serengeti (Kenya), Uluru (Australia), Yosemite (USA)
• some used to conserve cultural landscapes, Jurassic coast (UK) and gain additional protection

Question 7

degrees of protection

Answer 7

• proposed, described in official government strategies, recognised it should be protected
• designated, boundaries officially mapped, legally binding land use plan
• gazetted, enclosure of reserve e.g. erection of fences/boundary markers (consultation with local people needed to ensure cooperation, enclosure of land can be controversial)

Question 8

‘paper parks’

Answer 8

• criticism of nature reserves with no effective management, rule following or enforcement
• exist in official documents and reports but physical reality is no more protection than unprotected sites
• e.g. SSSIs on privately owned land in the UK, not regularly checked up on by enforcing body
• some areas too remote to be checked regularly, remote sensing can sometimes be used

Question 9

IUCN protected area categories

Answer 9

• 1a, strict nature reserve, managed mainly for science, very restricted access
• 1b wilderness area, managed mainly for wilderness protection, restricted access
• 2 national park, managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
• 3 natural monument, managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features
• 4 habitat/species management area, managed mainly for conservation through management intervention e.g. SSSIs
• 5 protected landscape/seascapes, managed mainly for land/seascape conservation and recreation
• 6 managed resource protected area, managed mainly for sustainable use of natural ecosystems

Question 10

Haweswater, lake district

Answer 10

• example of a managed resource protected area
• water company owns watershed area
• previously rented land to sheep farmers
• realised keeping vegetation low through grazing was bad for water conservation
• rented out much of it to RSPB instead for wildlife conservation
• unpopular among local farming community

Question 11

management of protected areas

Answer 11

• greatly varies
• conservation organisations
• governments
• local communities
• landowners
• or a mix working together, multi-actor management

Question 12

state management, Kruger national park, South Africa

Answer 12

• managed by SANSpark, government agency
• aims to make the park more relevant to the black majority
• works with universitites to develop adaptive management strategies
• People and Conservation Directorate aims to bring together communities surrounding park and wider public
• Joint Management Forum aims to involve communities in decision making

Question 13

multi-actor management, e.g. Indigenous Protection Areas (IPAs), Australia

Answer 13

• government identifies areas of conservation priority, many were owned by indigenous Australians
• dialogue between indigenous land owners and conservationists identified many common aspirations
• indigenous group voluntarily declares IPA, codesigns management plan with state conservation agencies

Question 14

community management e.g. Conservancy areas, Namibia

Answer 14

• difficult for state to manage nature reserves due to large size and remoteness
• local community has exclusive rights to manage wildlife resources, incentive to manage sustainably
• external conservation organisations e.g. WWF provide technical support and training

Question 15

private management, private reserves

Answer 15

• land is purchased or leased by conservation organisations e.g. national trust or wealthy individuals e.g. Paul Lister
• they are often free to manage land however they want if not reliant on funding or subsidies, potential for conflict
• reserve manager prepares management plan in consultation with statutory agencies
• free to innovate and engage with wider public
• often unpopular with local communities and/or governments especially when foreign owned (issues with undermining traditional rights/ sovereignty)