Taboo List - Definitions Flashcards
Aim
A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study.
Hypothesis
A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables. Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable.
Alternative Hypothesis
Any hypothesis except the null hypothesis. It is the alternative to the null hypothesis.
Directional/One-Tailed Hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants.
Non-Directional/Two-Tailed Hypothesis
A form of hypothesis that states a difference, correlation or association between two variables but does not specify the direction of such a relationship.
Null Hypothesis
The assumption of no relationship between variables being studied.
Dependent Variable
The variable measured by the experimenter.
Independent Variable
Some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable - the DV.
Co-Variables
Variables in a correlation; must be continuous and related.
Correlation Coefficient
A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated.
Extraneous Variables
Do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but may have an effect on the DV. They are nuisance variables that muddy the waters and make it more difficult to detect a significant effect.
Experiment
A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an IV has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the DV.
Lab Experiment
An experiment which takes place in a laboratory; an environment which can be controlled by the researcher. In particular a researcher wishes to control extraneous variables and, in an experiment, needs to manipulate the IV. This is easy in a controlled environment.
Field Experiment
A controlled experiment that is conducted outside a lab. The IV is still manipulated by the experimenter, and therefore causal relationships can be demonstrated.
Natural Experiment
A research method in which the experimenter cannot manipulate the IV directly, but where it varies naturally, and the effect on a DV can be observed.
Observation
Can be structured or unstructured. Can be used as a means of assessing the DV in an experiment.
Participant Observation
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.
Non-Participant Observation
The observer is separate from the people being observed.
Content Analysis
A kind of observational study in which behaviours is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes.
Questionnaire
Data collected through the use of written questions.
Interview
A research method or technique that involves a face-to-face, ‘real-time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data
Correlation Study
A study that uses a correlation analysis, which determines the extent to which co-variables are associated.
Case Study
A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise.
Pilot Study
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
Brain Scans
A technique used to investigate the functioning of the brain by taking images of the living brain.
PET Scans
Positron emission tomography; a brain scanning method used to study activity in the brain. Radioactive glucose is ingested and can be detected in the active areas of the brain.
CAT Scans
Computed axial tomography; a series of x-rays combined to form a comprehensive 2D or 3D image of the scanned area.
MRI Scans
Magnetic resonance imaging; uses a magnetic field that causes the atoms in the brain to change their alignment when the magnet is on. When the magnet is turned off, radio signals are emitted and a detector picks these up.
Longitudinal Studies
A study conducted over a long period of time. Often a form of repeated measures design in which participants are assessed on two or more occasions as they get older. However some longitudinal studies research is not experimental, for example people may simply be observed for a number of years, as in a case study.
Cross-Sectional Study
One group of participants representing one section of society are compared with participants from another group.
Self-Report Techniques
Data collection techniques where a participant describes their behaviour, for example questionnaires, interviews or diary studies.
Online Research
Research conducted via the internet, where data is collected from individuals.
Target Population
The group of people that the researcher is interested in and from whom the sample is drawn. Generalisations can be made about this group.
Sample Population
The group of people selected to participate in the research.
Random Sampling
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic Sampling
A sample of participants produced by selecting every nth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.
Opportunity Sampling
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.
Stratified Sampling
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to the frequency in the target population. Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups.
Quota Sampling
Similar to stratified sampling except participants are not selected from the strata using random techniques.
Self-Selected/Volunteer Sampling
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample.
Snowball Sampling
Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants.
Independent Groups Design
Participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques.
Repeated Measures Design
Each participant takes part in every condition under test, i.e. each level of the IV.
Matched Pairs Design
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second person is allocated to the other condition.
Bar Chart
A graph used to represent the frequency of data; the categories on the x-axis have no fixed order and there is no true zero.
Pie Chart
A circular graph divided into sections or ‘slices’ each representing the proportion of the total.
Line Graph
Represents frequency data. There is continuous data on the x-axis. There is a dot to mark the top of each bar and each dot is connected by a line.
Scatter Graph
A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores.
Histogram
Type of frequency in which the number of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns. There is a true zero and no spaces between the bars.
Measures of Central Tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a ‘typical’ value for a data set.
Measures of Dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a data set. Takes the exact values of all the data into account.
Median
The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.
Mode
The most frequently occurring value or item in a data set.
Standard Deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set. It assesses the spread of data around the mean.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set. Usually 1 is added as a correction.
Reliability
Consistency.
Validity
Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one.
Demand Characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.
Single-Blind Techniques
A type of research design in which the participant is not aware of the research aims and/or which condition of the experiment they are receiving.
Double-Blind Techniques
Neither the participants nor the experimenter is aware of the research aims and other important details, and thus have no expectations.
