T2: PEEL for Memory Flashcards
R2S MSM (Baddeley - separate unitary stores)
A strength of the multi-store model of memory is that it is supported by research studies that show that STM and LTM are separate, unitary stores. For example, Baddeley found that ppts mixed up words that sound similar when using their STM but mixed-up words that have similar meanings when using their LTM. This supports the multi-store model of memory because it clearly suggests that coding in STM is acoustic and coding in LTM is semantic supporting the view that the STM and LTM are separate stores. Therefore, increasing the validity of the multi-store model of memory.
R2S MSM (CS - clive wearing)
Further research to support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s MSM comes from a case study of Clive Wearing. He suffers from amnesia in which he cannot transfer information from his STM to his LTM, this is evident as when his wife re-enters the room after leaving just seconds before, he greets her as if it’s the first time he has seen her in years. This supports the MSM because it shows that STM and LTM are separate stores and information must flow in a linear way from STM to LTM. Therefore, increasing the validity of the MSM.
D - A (CS -> low population validity)
However, critics would argue that the case study to support the MSM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just 1 person, clive wearing, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings that info flows in a linear way through separate memory stores, to the wider population as their memory may operate differently. Therefore, reducing the support that research provides for the multistore model of memory.
A MSM (prolonged rehearsal -> emotional events)
Finally, the multi-store model’s theory of prolonged rehearsal is thought to be too simplistic. The theory states that the more a piece of info is rehearsed, the more likely it is to transfer from STM to LTM. However, research has shown that this rehearsal will only keep info in the STM and for info to be transferred to LTM, elaborative rehearsal must take place. This occurs when the info is given meaning (semantic). Moreover, it is also argued that some info is remembered without the need to constantly rehearse it, for example an emotionally important event. Therefore, the multi-store model is flawed when explaining how info is transferred to the LTM.
R2S types of LTM (CS -> clive wearing)
To further evaluate the different types of LTM, it has real life evidence from a case study of clive wearing. he suffers from amnesia in which his episodic memory was damaged as he could not remember some events from his past, for example his musical education. however, clive’s procedural memory was still working as he could remember how to play the piano. this supports the idea that there are different types of LTM because if only certain parts of his LTM are damaged, this indicates that they are separate. therefore, increasing the validity of types of LTM
TF: R2S types of LTM (case study -> clive wearing)
moreover, clive wearing’s amnesia was caused by a virus that damaged his hippocampus, further supporting the idea that the episodic memory is in this area of the brain
Discussion: Against LTM (clive case study -> low population validity)
However, this research to support can be criticized as it has a low population validity. This is because the research was a case study, using only Clive as a ppt who suffers from an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings of the different types of LTM to the wider population as their LTM may operate differently, thus limiting the support that the research provides for the different types of LTM.
R2S LTM (neuroimaging evidence)
A strength of the different types of LTM is that there is neuroimaging evidence to support the notion that there are different types of LTM. For example, ppts were asked to perform various memory tasks whilst their brains were scanned using a PET scanner. It was found that episodic memories were associated with the hippocampus, whereas procedural memory was associated with the cerebellum and motor cortex. This supports the different types of LTM because the 3 different types of LTM were found in different areas of the brain, indicating that they are separate. Therefore, increasing the validity of research investigating types of LTM.
R2S LTM (scientific methods / scientific enquiry)
Moreover, the research into the different types of LTM, such as that describe above, can be praised as it uses scientific methods and uses (scientific enquiry) to investigate memory. Objective and empirical techniques such as brain scans, are used to identify the different parts of the brain that become active when completing different types of LTM tasks, for example the cerebellum and motor cortex being active when carrying out a procedural task. Therefore, it could be argued that this increases the overall internal validity of the research into types of LTM, thus raising Psychology’s scientific status.
R2S WMM (shallice and warrington 1970: CS - patient KF)
Research to support the WMM was conducted by Shallice and Warrington (1970) on patient KF, who suffered with amnesia (from a motorbike accident). After testing STM using Miller’s digit span technique, they found that KF’s recall in STM for digits was very poor when the digits were read aloud to him, but recall was much better when KF could visually see the digits himself. This supports the WMM because it suggests that there must ne different systems within the STM, one to process visual information (VSS) and one to process auditory information (PL), as the PL was damaged but the VSS intact. Therefore, increasing the validity of the working memory model.
Discussion - WMM (low population validity)
However, critics would argue that the case study to support the WMM is flawed, as it has low population validity. The research was a case study of just one person, patient KF, who has an unusual illness involving damage to the brain. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings that STM has several systems to the wider population, as their STM may operate differently. Thus, reducing the level of support the research can provide for the working memory model.
R2S WMM (dual task performance research) MUST LEARN SCENARIO Qs
Research to support the WMM comes from dual task performance research. Baddeley et al (1975) gave participants two visual tasks (both require VSS) to complete at the same time, followed by one visual (VSS) and one verbal task (PL) to complete at the same time. He found that participants had more difficultly when performing two visual tasks compared to when they completed a visual task (VSS) alongside a verbal task (PL). This supports WMM because it shows there are separate slave systems, each with a limited capacity that will get overloaded by completing tasks. Therefore, increasing the validity of the WMM as a model of memory.
A WMM (lack of clarity over role of CE)
Despite the empirical research to support the WMM, opponents argue that much of this research is conducted on the slave systems such as the PL and VSS and that there is a lack of clarity over the role of the central executive. The CE is said to be a single component of ‘attention’ that delegates to slave systems, however some psychologists suggest that the central executive may have several components within it. Therefore, this casts doubt on the WMM as an explanation of STM as more research is needed on the CE.
R2S IT (McGeoch & McDonald 1931 -> List of 10 words A and B)
Rsearch to support interference theory as an explanation of forgetting was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald (1931), who gave ppts a list of 10 words to learn (list A). Ppts had to learn this list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. Ppts then had to learn a second list of words (list B) - this is the interference. Ppts were then asked to recall list A. It was found that if list B was a lost of similar meaning words (synonyms) to list A, recall was poor (12%). However, if the words in List B were different to list A recall as higher (26%). This supports retroactive interference theory as an explanation for forgetting because it demonstrates that the recent information has interfered with the recall of past information and interference is strongest the more similar the items are, which is what the theory predicts. Increasing the validity of interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.
Discussion: Interference theory (McGeoch & McDonald 1931 -> high in reliability)
a strength of interference as an explanation of forgetting is that much of the research, such as McGeoch and McDonald is high in reliability. It is conducted in a controlled lab setting and therefore can be repeated in the same conditions, for example give each ppt the same time to learn the word list to gain consistent results into the effects of interference on forgetting. Think further: interference is one of the most consistently demonstrated findings in the whole of psychology, with most studies showing that both types of interference are very likely to be common ways that we forget information in the LTM. This therefore strengthens the support the research provides for interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.
A IT (lacks mundane realism)
However, critics would argue that there is a much greater chance of interference demonstrated in research studies than in real life situations, this is because the research lacks mundane realism. Artificial tasks such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to real life examples of forgetting, as the research does not reflect what we would try to remember in everyday life such as birthdays, people’s faces, the ingredients to make a cake etc, maybe these memories are less likely to be contaminated by interference as they are more meaningful to us. Thus, limiting the support, the provides for interference as an explanation for forgetting lowering the external validity.
R2S IT (Baddeley and Hitch -> real life setting -> rugby player names)
On the other hand, Baddeley and Hitch conducted research using a real life setting where ppts performed a real-life task, which also supported interference theory. Baddeley and Hitch (1977) asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against over a rugby season. The players all played for the same time interval; however, some players had played all the games, and some had not, due to injury. Baddeley and Hitch found that players who had played more games forgot proportionally more games than those who had played fewer games. This supports interference theory because it demonstrates that the games became confused in memory and therefore less were likely to be recalled, rather than being due to the amount of time that had passed. Therefore, increasing the validity of interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.
R2S CDF RFD2AOC (Godden & Baddeley 1975 -> scuba divers)
Research to support context-dependent forgetting was conducted by Godden & Baddeley (1975). Scuba divers were given a list of words to learn either on land or under water. They were then asked to recall the lists in either the same setting they learned, or the opposite. It was found that the ppts were more likely to forget the words (40% less accuracy) if tested in the opposite location to where they had learned the words. This supports context dependent forgetting because it demonstrates that when there is a lack of external memory cues (different environment), forgetting is more likely. Therefore, increasing the validity of context-dependent forgetting as an explanation of forgetting.
R2S SDF RFD2AOC (Goodwin et al 1969 -> male volunteers drunk or sober)
Research to support state-dependent forgetting was conducted by Goodwin et al 1969. Male volunteers were asked to learn a list of words when either drunk or sober. They were then asked to recall the words, 24 hour later, in either the same state or opposite state. It was found that ppts were more likely to forget the words if tested in the opposite state to which they had learned the words. This supports state-dependent forgetting because it demonstrates that when there is a lack of internal memory cues (different physical / emotional state), forgetting is more likely. Therefore, increasing the validity of state dependent forgetting as an explanation of forgetting.
A RFD2AOC (lacks mundane realism)
However, it could be argued that the research into retrieval failure due to absence of cues, such as those describes above lacks mundane realism. This is due to the use of artificial tasks, such as learning lists of words are often used. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings to everyday cases of forgetting, as in real life we may be learning much more complex information, such as psychological theories, that may not be as easily accessed with an internal or external cue. Therefore, reducing the external validity of the research and questioning retrieval failure due to an absence of cues as an explanation for forgetting.
R2S RFD2AOC (PA -> context-reinstatement)
However, some would argue that the theory has useful practical applications and therefore can be applied to everyday life. The idea that forgetting occurs due to lack of memory cues has been used to create a technique used by police in the cognitive interview, known as context-reinstatement. Witnesses to a crime are asked to imagine themselves at the scene of the crime (context), and to imagine how they were feeling (state) when recalling the events, this has been found to be effective in triggering memories as they access internal and external memory cues. Therefore, the research into retrieval failure due to absence of cues is an important part of applied psychology because it helps to provide more accurate eyewitness testimonies, which increases the credibility of retrieval failures as an explanation of forgetting.
R2S LQ FAEWT (PA -> cognitive interview)
A strength of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is that it has practical applications. The principles of the theory that leading questions can have a negative influence on the accuracy of EWT has lead to improvements in the criminal justice system and the development of the cognitive interview. The cognitive interview avoids the use of leading questions and uses open questions, such as “recall everything about the event” to trigger as many details about the event as possible. therefore, the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT is an important part of applied psychology because it helps to provide more accurate eyewitness testimonies, which increases the credibility of misleading information as a factor affecting the accuracy of EWT.
THINK FURTHER: positive impact on economy (follow on from R2S leading questions -> practical application -> cognitive interview)
Moreover, the research could have a positive impact on the economy; if witness statements are more accurate this could lead to a quicker conviction of the correct perpetrator, meaning less taxpayers’ money is spent on multiple police interviews or re-trials, and this money could be used elsewhere to benefit society.
NHS - improving wait times / creating new treatments
A LQ FAEWT (lacks mundane realism)
However, a criticism of the research into the effects of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is that it lacks mundane realism. This is because Loftus and Palmer’s research uses the artificial task of watching a video of a car crash. Therefore, it is difficult to generalise the findings of research into leading questions on the accuracy of real life EWT as in real events, witnesses will have heightened emotions (high anxiety which could lower the accuracy of EWT). Therefore, lowering the external validity of research of research investigating the influence of leading questions on the accuracy of EWT.
