T2: Memory Flashcards
1
Q
coding definition
A
how we process the information - changing it to a suitable form so it can be stored. for example, the STM codes acoustically.
2
Q
capacity definition
A
the amount of information that can be held in memory. for example, the capacity of STM is 5-9 items.
3
Q
duration definition
A
how long the information lasts in memory. for example, information lasts 18-30 seconds in STM.
4
Q
intro to essays AO1 - multi-store model: Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through memory. It is a structural model stating that the sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) are separate unitary stores and that information flows through the system in a linear way.
5
Q
AO1 (6m) - multi-store model: Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through memory. It is a structural model stating that the sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) are separate unitary stores and that information flows through the system in a linear way.
When info is taken from the environment through your senses, it goes first through the sensory register. The sensory register codes any type of senses and has an unlimited capacity with a duration of less than 1 second.
If info is paid attention to, it goes from the sensory register to the STM. The STM is a limited store and codes acoustically, has a limited capacity of 5-9 items and a duration of 18-30 seconds.
Maintenance rehearsal repeats info over and over to increase the duration of info kept in the STM to stop it from decaying.
Prolonged rehearsal occurs in order to move info from STM to LTM.
LTM is a potentially unlimited store and codes semantically, with a lifetime duration and an unlimited capacity.
When info is recalled / remembered retrieval takes place, moving the info from the LTM to the STM.
6
Q
who conducted research on coding
A
Baddeley
7
Q
what 2 things did Baddeley investigate (aim)
A
to investigate how we code information in our STM and LTM
8
Q
coding - Baddeley method
A
lab experiment
9
Q
coding - Baddeley procedure (STM)
A
showed ppts lists of words in 4 categories
(1) acoustically similar (cat, sat, mat, bat)
(2) acoustically dissimilar (tree, house, flour)
immediately after each presentation, ppts were asked to recall the lists in the correct order
10
Q
coding - Baddeley procedure (LTM)
A
showed ppts lists of words in 4 categories
(3) semantically similar (kip, doze, nap, sleep)
(4) semantically dissimilar (cake, book, plane)
20 minutes after each presentation, ppts were asked to recall the lists in the correct order
11
Q
coding - Baddeley findings (STM)
A
more mistakes made on the acoustically similar list
12
Q
coding - Baddeley findings (LTM)
A
more mistakes made on the semantically similar list
13
Q
coding - Baddeley conclusion (STM)
A
suggests STM mainly codes information acoustically
14
Q
coding - Baddeley conclusion (LTM)
A
suggests LTM mainly codes information semantically
15
Q
Who conducted research on capacity
A
Miller
16
Q
Which memory did miller investigate
A
STM
17
Q
What did miller investigate (aim)
A
to investigate the capacity of the STM
18
Q
capacity - miller method
A
lab experiment
19
Q
capacity - Miller’s procedure
A
- used the ‘digit span technique’
- ppts were given strings of unrelated digits (don’t have a pattern - 2,4,6; are not repeated - 1,1,1; don’t use make up common acronyms - LOL) that increased by 1 digit every time
- ppts digit span was measured until the point where they could no longer recall the digits in the correct sequence
20
Q
capacity - miller’s findings
A
ppts could recall 5-9 (7+ / -2) items, more could be recalled if items were ‘chunked’
21
Q
capacity - miller’s conclusion
A
- capacity of STM is limited (7+ / -2) items
- our digit span can be increased by putting several items into a meaningful chunk
22
Q
who conduced research on duration (STM)
A
Peterson and Peterson
23
Q
who conduced research on duration (LTM)
A
Bahrick
24
Q
duration - peterson and peterson’s aim
A
to investigate the duration of STM
25
duration - bahrick's aim
to investigate the duration of LTM
26
duration - peterson and peterson method
lab experiment
27
duration - bahrick method
not a lab
28
duration - peterson and peterson's sample
24 undergraduate students
29
duration - bahrick's sample
392 american high school graduates aged between 17 and 74
30
duration - peterson and peterson's procedure
- ppts were briefly presented with a consonant trigram (3-letter nonsense syllable e.g. HDF) to remember
- they were then given a 3-digit number and asked to count back backwards from this number to prevent rehearsal
- they were stopped at different intervals (3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds) and asked to recall the consonant trigram
31
duration - bahrick's procedure
- ppts tested on the memory of their former classmates
- C1: had to recall the names of classmates using a photo yearbook
- C1: had to recall the names of their class with no photo cue
32
duration - peterson and peterson's findings
- after 3 seconds only 80% recalled the trigram correctly
- after 18 seconds fewer than 10% recalled correctly
33
duration - bahrick's findings
- C1: 70% of ppts recalled accurately after 48 years
- C2: 30% of ppts recalled accurately after 48 years
34
duration - peterson and peterson's conclusion
information in the STM lasts 18-30 seconds unless it is rehearsed
35
duration - bahrick's conclusion
this shows certain types of information can potentially last a lifetime, especially with the correct cues
36
how many different types of LTM are there
3
37
what are the 3 different types of LTM
procedural, semantic and episodic
38
procedural memory definition
- knowing how to do things
- motor skills (muscle memory)
- riding a bike
- non-declarative (doesn't involve conscious recall)
- automatic process
- not 'time stamped'
- brain regions -> cerebellum and motor cortex
39
semantic memory definition
- knowledge / facts
- meaning of words 'love'
- facts 'London = capital of England'
- declarative (involves conscious recall)
- not 'time stamped'
- brain regions -> temporal lobe
40
episodic memory definition
- events / past experiences from a specific time
- first day at school
- declarative (involves conscious recall)
- not 'time stamped'
- brain regions -> hippocampus
41
Working memory model is about which memory
STM
42
intro to the working memory model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the working model of memory as an explanation of how the STM works. They proposed that the STM was not a unitary store (like the MSM predicts), but several different stores which are all connected but work independently as an active processor. It views memory as active rather than passive, in contrast to the MSM.
43
Central Executive (job/role, coding, capacity)
job/role
1 -> an 'attentional' process (requires attention)
2 -> delegate information to the correct stores
3 -> take over new / most demanding task
coding -> any type of information
capacity -> limited
44
Phonological Loop (job/role, coding, capacity)
job/role -> responsible for dealing with auditory information
Split into
1 -> Articulatory loop (silently repeats words we see / hear to keep in memory)
2 -> Phonological store (stores words we hear like an inner ear)
coding -> acoustically
capacity -> limited
45
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (job/role, coding, capacity)
job/role -> responsible for visual + spatial information (metal images in your head + used when giving directions to someone)
Split into
1 -> visual cache (stores visual data -> things we see)
2 -> inner-scribe (records the placement of objects in space)
coding -> visually
capacity -> limited
46
Episodic Buffer (job/role, transfer of into to where, coding, capacity)
job/role -> collects and combines info from CE, PL, VSS to record an event (episode)
-> Transfers info to LTM
coding -> any type of info
capacity -> limited
47
AO1 (6m) - working memory model: Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the working model of memory as an explanation of how the STM works. They proposed that the STM was not a unitary store (like the MSM predicts), but several different stores which are all connected but work independently. It views memory as active rather than passive process.
The working memory model suggests that all information passes into the CE. The main role of CE is to delegate / share out info into the relevant slave systems and is an attentional process (which requires attention). It has a limited capacity and codes any type of info. As it takes in all info from the environment, this could be a problem because if it takes over the new / most demanding task, it could become overloaded.
The CE can delegate auditory information to the PL. This is responsible for processing auditory info and is split into the articulatory loop and the phonological store. The articulatory loop silently repeats words we see / hear to keep in memory (maintenance rehearsal). The phonological store stores words we hear like an inner ear. It codes acoustically and has a limited capacity.
The CE can delegate visual information to the VSS. This is responsible for processing visual info and is split into the visual cache and the inner scribe. The visual cache stores visual data. The inner scribe records the placement of objects in space. It codes visually and has a limited capacity (3 - 4 objects).
Finally, the EB was a store added later to the model. The function of the EB is to collect and combine info from the CE, PL, VSS to record an event (episode). This store has the ability to allow the info to pass into the LTM.
48
Dual Tasks - AO2 Qs - Scenario
If a person completes 2 tasks at the same time that use the same slave system, then performance is reduced (because they have a limited capacity), but not if the tasks use different slave systems (as there is no competition for a limited capacity).
49
2 explanations of forgetting
- interference theory
- retrieval failure due to absence of cues
50
2 types of interference
- proactive interference
- retroactive interference
51
2 types of retrieval failure due to absence of cues
- context-dependent forgetting
- state-dependent forgetting
52
explanation 1 - interference theory (6m)
(1) suggests that forgetting occurs due to 2 lots of information, being coded at different times becoming confused in the LTM, 1 memory disrupts the ability to recall another, most likely to occur when info is similar
(2) 2 types of interference: proactive interference and retroactive interference
(3) proactive interference -> forgetting occurs when past info stored disrupts the recall of recent info stored
(4) memory of old phone number means you forget new phone number
(5) retroactive interference -> forgetting occurs when recent info stored disrupts the recall of past info stored
(6) memory of new car registration number means you forget past car registration number
53
explanation 2 - retrieval failure due to absence of cues (6m)
(Intro) suggest that forgetting occurs when info is still in the LTM but can't be accessed due to a lack of memory cues
(1) context-dependent forgetting -> forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues to trigger recall
(2) environment is different at recall to when info was coded -> forgetting more likely
(3) person may forget info when sitting an exam in a different classroom to which they learnt the info
(4) state-dependent forgetting -> forgetting occurs due to a lack of internal cues to trigger recall
(5) person's internal physical and / or emotional state is different at recall to when info was coded -> forgetting more likely
(6) person forget dance routine on stage as they learnt routine when calm but anxious on stage
54
factors that affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
1 misleading information
2 anxiety (johnson and scott)
55
2 factors of misleading information
- leading questions (loftus and palmer)
- post-event discussion
56
what is a leading question
a question that wrongly implies something about an event or crime, such as 'what colour was the youth's jacket?' implies the perpetrator was a youth
57
how does this affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
this affects the accuracy of EWT as the information that is implied in the question contaminates the witness' memory and therefore witnesses recall inaccurate information
58
who conducted research into leading questions (misleading information)
loftus and palmer
59
aim of the research (leading questions)
to investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect ppts' memory of an event
60
method of the research (leading questions)
lab experiment
61
sample of the research (leading questions)
45 American students (split into 5 groups of 9)
62
procedure of the research (leading questions)
- all ppts shown a video of a car crash
- each group asked a leading question with a different verb (IV)
- ***smashed, hit, collided, bumped, contacted
- **How fast were the cars travelling when they *** each other?**
- measures ppts' speed estimates in mph (DV)
63
findings of the research (leading questions)
found that ppts guessed a higher mean speed when they had 'smashed' (40.5mph) compared to 'contacted' (31.8mph)
64
conclusion of the research (leading questions)
the phrasing of a question can influence a ppts' memory of an event
65
what is meant by post event discussion
when witnesses of an event discuss their accounts with each other
66
in what 2 ways does post event discussion reduce the accuracy of EWT
- memory contamination
- memory conformity
67
What is memory contamination
When co-witnessds to a crime discuss it with each other their EWT may become altered or distorted. This is because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories suggesting that their memories of the event have changed because of PED
68
What is memory conformity
Witnesses go along with each other either to win social approval (NSI) or because they believe the other witness is right and they are wrong (ISI). However, unlike with memory contamination, the memory remains unchanged, but the accuracy of recall has been affected.
69
what is meant by anxiety
a strong emotional and physical state that affects EWT
70
how does this affect the accuracy of EWT
extreme anxiety has been found to negatively affect EWT as witnesses only focus on certain aspects of the event so their recall is limited
71
who conducted research on anxiety
johnson and scott
72
aim: johnson and scott anxiety
to investigate the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
73
method: johnson and scott anxiety
laboratory experiment
74
procedure: johnson and scott anxiety
- all ppts told to wait outside a room before the experiment began
- ppts placed in 1 of 2 conditions: either a high anxiety, 'weapon focus' condition or low anxiety condition (IV)
- HIGH anxiety condition 'weapon focus': ppts heard an argument and the sound of breaking glass from within the room, and a man walked out of the room carrying a knife covered with blood
- LOW anxiety condition: ppts heard the argument from within the room before a man walked out with grease on his hands and a pen
- ppts then had to identify the person who left the room from 50 photographs (DV)
75
findings: johnson and scott anxiety
ppts in the low anxiety condition correctly identified the man leaving the room 49% of the time whereas ppts in the high anxiety condition correctly identified the man leaving the room 33% of the time
76
conclusion: johnson and scott anxiety
anxiety caused 'weapon focus' as the witness concentrates on the weapon not the person because of the fear of the situation, reducing accuracy of eyewitness recall
77
how do you improve the accuracy of EWT
through the use of the cognitive interview
78
cognitive interview (improving accuracy of EWT) was developed by who?
fisher and geiselman 1992
79
what is the cognitive interview
a technique used by police to interview witnesses after they have seen a crime / accident to help facilitate the most accurate and detailed memory possible
80
how is the cognitive interview used
lots of 'open' questions are asked where the witness is not interrupted and free to expand on their own answers
81
outline the difference between the cognitive interview and the standard interview (2-4m)
CI -> open ended questions
SI -> closed direct questions
CI -> not interrupted
SI -> often interrupted
CI -> more retrieval paths (ways into the memory)
SI -> direct routes less retrieval paths
82
what are the 4 techniques used in the cognitive interview
- recall everything (report everything)
- context reinstatement
- recall in reverse order
- recall from changed perspective
83
what is the witness asked to do (describe) -> recall everything / report everything
the witness is asked to report all details of the event even if it seems irrelevant
84
what is the witness asked to do (describe) -> context reinstatement
the witness is asked to mentally place themselves back at the scene of the event and imagine the environment, such as the weather and what they could see, and their emotions
85
what is the witness asked to do (describe) -> recall in reverse order
the witness is asked to report what happened in a different chronological order, for example from the end of the crime to the start
86
what is the witness asked to do (describe) -> recall from changed perspective
the witness is asked to recall the incident from another person's perspective who witnessed the crime (another witness / the perpetrator)
87
why this will improve recall (how will it improve EWT) -> recall everything / report everything
the recall of 1 piece of information might act as a trigger to memory recall of other key information
88
why this will improve recall (how will it improve EWT) -> context reinstatement
using context and state dependent cues may help to trigger memories of the event that may appear forgotten but are not currently accessible due to retrieval failure (context / state reinstatement)
89
why this will improve recall (how will it improve EWT) -> recall in reverse order
prevents witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what happened. it also prevents dishonesty, as it is harder to lie when having to reverse a story
90
why this will improve recall (how will it improve EWT) -> recall from changed perspective
may prevent witnesses reporting what they expected ti happen (schema) rather than what happened
91
example of a question AO2 -> recall everything / report everything
'start from the beginning, what happened the morning of the robbery' / 'explain everything you can remember about...'
92
example of a question AO2 -> context reinstatement
'close your eyes... what do you see, what's the weather like, what was x wearing, how were you feeling when...'
93
example of a question AO2 -> recall in reverse order
'tell us what happened from when the police arrived, backwards to the start of the day'
94
example of a question AO2 -> recall from changed perspective
'imagine you're the bank robber... what do you see'
