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Advanced Higher Chemistry > Synthesis > Flashcards

Synthesis Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two ways bonds can be broken?

A
  • homolytic fission

* heterolytic fission

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2
Q

What are free radicals?

A

unpaired electrons that are highly reactive

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3
Q

Are free radicals suitable for synthesis?

A

no

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4
Q

What does a full curly arrow represent?

A

the movement of a pair of electrons

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5
Q

What are nucleophiles?

A

nucleus seekers that are negatively charged ions or neutral molecules that are electron-rich

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6
Q

What are nucleophiles capable of?

A

donating an electron pair to form a new bond

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7
Q

What are electrophiles?

A

electron seekers-they are positively charged ions or neutral molecules that are electron deficient

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8
Q

What are electrophiles capable of?

A

accepting an electron pair to form a new bond

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9
Q

What is an example of a nucleophile?

A

ammonia

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10
Q

What is an example of an electrophile?

A

water

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11
Q

How can monohaloalkanes be classified?

A

as primary, secondary or tertiary

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12
Q

What does an elimination reaction produce?

A

alkenes

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13
Q

What is the overall reaction rate dependent on?

A

the rate determining step

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14
Q

What order is an SN1 reaction?

A

1st order overall

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15
Q

What order is an SN2 reaction?

A

2nd order overall

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16
Q

What are the general rules for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms?

A

SN1-tertiary haloalkanes

SN2-primary & secondary haloalkanes

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17
Q

How can alcohols be prepared?

A
  • fermentation
  • nucleophilic substitution
  • acid-catalysed hydration
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18
Q

What is the reducing agent for the reduction of aldehydes and ketones?

A

lithium aluminium hydride

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19
Q

What chemicals can be used for the oxidation of an alcohol?

A
  • acidified potassium dichromate
  • acidified dichromate
  • hot copper (II) oxide
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20
Q

What can be said about the stages of making an ether?

A

both stages are irreversible

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21
Q

What is the functional group in ethers?

A

R-O-R

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22
Q

What is an SN2 reaction?

A
  • There is only one step
  • no carbocation
  • a 5 centred transition state
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23
Q

How does an SN1 reaction occur?

A

An SN1 reaction occurs in a minimum of two steps via a trigonal planar carbocation intermediate

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24
Q

When are free radicals formed?

A

when the bond broken is non-polar

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25
Q

What do reactions involving free radicals result in?

A

very complex mixtures of products

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26
Q

What are haloalkanes?

A

Saturated organic compounds derived from alkanes by substituting one or more hydrogen atoms by halogen atoms

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27
Q

What happens in elimination reactions?

A

In elimination reactions, a strong base is used in a solvent of relatively low polarity

28
Q

Why is an SN1 mechanism used for tertiary haloalkanes?

A

due to their stability

29
Q

What are the two stages involved in making ethers?

A

stage 1-substitution

stage 2-condensation

30
Q

Reaction of alkali metals with alcohols

A

alkali metal+alcohol-> metal alkoxide+hydrogen

31
Q

How can ethers be classified?

A

symmetrical or asymmetrical

32
Q

What are ethers?

A

alkanes with the alkoxyl functional group attached

33
Q

What is homolytic fission?

A

the 2 shared electrons separate equally with one going to each atom

34
Q

What is heterolytic fission?

A

both of the shared electrons go to one of the two atoms forming ions

35
Q

What are carbocations?

A

A carbocation is an ion with a positively charged carbon atom

36
Q

What can be said about heterolytic fission?

A

Tends to produce fewer products, therefore, is better suited for synthesis

37
Q

When does heterolytic fission occur?

A

when a bond is polar

38
Q

How can substitution occur?

A

By two mechanisms:
•SN1
•SN2

39
Q

What happens in nucleophilic substitution?

A
  • The halogen atom is replaced by a nucleophile
  • This is a result of the C-X bond
  • The nucleophile denotes a pair of electrons and forms a covalent bond with the carbon
40
Q

Do ethers display hydrogen bonding between molecules?

A

no

41
Q

Is hydrogen bonding possible between water and ethers?

A

yes

42
Q

How can ethers be prepared?

A

By nucleophilic substitution of a monoalkane using a metal alkoxide

43
Q

How can alkenes be prepared?

A
  • dehydration of alcohols

* elimination of hydrogen halides in the presence of a base

44
Q

What are the different reactions with alkenes?

A
  • hydrogenation
  • halogenation
  • hydrohalogenation
  • hydration
45
Q

What is halogentation?

A

reaction with a halogen

46
Q

What is hydrohalogention?

A

reaction with a hydrogen halide

47
Q

What is Markovnikov’s rule?

A

The hydrogen atom adds to the carbon of the double bond with the larger number of hydrogens already attached

48
Q

What do alkenes behave as?

A

nucleophiles

49
Q

Which amines can’t hydrogen bond with each other?

A

tertiary because they have no N-H bonds

50
Q

Which amines have greater bpts?

A

primary and secondary amines have higher bpts than tertiary amines

51
Q

What are amines?

A

weak bases

52
Q

What can be said about benzene?

A

Benzene is a very stable, saturated structure that does not undergo addition reactions

53
Q

Does benzene undergo addition reactions?

A

no

54
Q

What makes benzene stable?

A

its 6 delocalised electrons

55
Q

What is a substituted benzene ring called?

A

phenyl

56
Q

What reactions does benzene tend to undergo?

A

electrophilic substitution

57
Q

What catalyst is used in the halogenation of benzene?

A

AlCl₃

58
Q

What is nucleophilic substitution?

A

Nucleophiles contain either a negative charge or a lone pair of electrons and attack a centre of positive charge on a molecule
Nucleophile attacks a carbon with a positive charge and replaces (substitutes) the atom/ group with a negative charge thus leaving the molecule under attack

59
Q

What is the definition of an SN1 reaction?

A

nucleophilic substitution with only 1 particle involved in the rate-determining step

60
Q

What is the definition of an SN2 reaction?

A

nucleophilic substitution where 2 particles are involved in the rate-determining step

61
Q

What is the reagent used in an elimination reaction?

A

Aluminium oxide or concentrated sulphuric acid/concentrated phosphuric acid

62
Q

Why are halides attached to a benzene ring resistant to attack?

A

Electrophiles are attracted to the delocalised electrons in the benzene ring

63
Q

Why does but-1-ene have no geometric isomers?

A

Swapping any of the groups on the C=C always results in the same structure

64
Q

How can NMR spectroscopy be used to distinguish between fructose and glucose?

A

Fructose and glucose will have different proton environments

65
Q

What are examples of dehydrating agents?

A

Phosphoric acid/ sulphuric acid / aluminium oxide

66
Q

What is the difference between hydration and hydrolysis?

A

Hydration is often an electrophilic reaction where there is no change in the products
Hydrolysis is when there is a breakdown in the reactants using water

Advanced Higher Chemistry (12 decks)

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