Syntax I (Word Classes, Phrases & Clauses) Flashcards
Syntax
- how words are combined into sentences
- finite set of combinatory rules that allows to generate an infinite number of grammatically
well-formed sentences
Syntactic Constituents
= a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical sentence structure
- vary in size and are hierarchically ordered: word < phrase < clause < sentence
Lexical = content words
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition (in recent
theories)
Grammatical = function words
Determiner (articles,
demonstrative and possessive
det., quantifiers, etc.)
Pronoun
Conjunction
Auxiliary (verb)
Preposition (in trad. theories)
Nouns
- refer to entities; physical objects, people, substances, places, ab-
stract objects
-lexical heads of phrases that function as grammatical subjects, objects, complements; accompanied, e.g., by preceding adjectives or determiners
Verbs
- denote actions, states and processes
- lexical heads of phrases that function as predicate; accompanied by auxiliaries or adverbs
Primary auxiliaries
- be: compulsory for marking the grammatical categories of passive voice and progressive aspect
- have: compulsory for marking the grammatical category
perfect - do: compulsory in negation and question formation when no other auxiliary is present
Modal auxiliaries
- can, could, may, etc.
- allow to express hypothetical events, necessities, possibilities, beliefs etc.
Adjective
- denote properties, qualities and features
- typically modify nouns
Adverbs
- refer to qualities or degrees of properties and actions
- modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs
Subtypes: Time, Frequency, Manner, Place, Degree
Pronouns
- stand for and “point to” to other referential elements
- substitute complete noun phrases, not just nouns
- Subtypes: Definite article, Indefinite article, Demonstrative determiners, Possessive determiners, Quantifiers, Cardinal numbers
Preposition
- relations in space (e.g. across, behind) or time (e.g. during, before)
- always followed by a noun phrase
Conjunctions
- express relationships (spatial, temporal, causal, conditional, …) between the elements they link
- link clauses, phrases and words
- Subtypes: Coordinating conjunctions, Subordinating conjunctions, Correlative conjunctions
Phrases
- consist either of one word or a group of words
- have one central, obligatory element that determines the syntactic category of the whole phrase (= head)
Complement
a subordinate phrase required by the head of the superordinate phrase:
- prepositions take NPs as their complements
e.g. [PPinto [NPthe wild]]
Modifier
an optional phrase that modifies the head of the superordinate phrase;
- APs often serve as modifiers within NPs
e.g. [NPmy [APskilled] co-worker]
Recursion
phrases can be embedded within phrases (of the same type) repeatedly, and theoretically ad infinitum
Clauses
- syntactic unit at a level between phrases and (complex) sentences
- contains exactly one main/full verb plus the constituents relating to this verb (e.g. subject,
direct object, …).
main clauses (“independent clauses”)
can stand on their own as a complete sentence →
always finite clauses
subordinate clauses (“dependent clauses”)
→ cannot stand on their own because they depend on, and are embedded into, a superordinate syntactic unit → may be non-finite clauses
Sentence
= largest independent syntactic unit of a language
- usually has a subject-predicate structure, including at least one finite verb
- declarative (statement), interrogative (question) or imperative (command)
Simple(x) sentence:
sentence: contains exactly one clause, typically with a simple subject-predicate structure
Complex sentence
a combination of at least two clauses, which are coordinated or subordinated
Problems with determining word classes
- word form can belong to more than one word class
- alternative classifications possible
- some parts of speech are more heterogeneous than others
- not all members of a certain class exhibit all characteristics usually described to that word class to the same degree
