Syntax I (Word Classes, Phrases & Clauses)

Question 1

Syntax

Answer 1

• how words are combined into sentences
• finite set of combinatory rules that allows to generate an infinite number of grammatically
  well-formed sentences

Question 2

Syntactic Constituents

Answer 2

= a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical sentence structure
- vary in size and are hierarchically ordered: word < phrase < clause < sentence

Question 3

Lexical = content words

Answer 3

Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
Preposition (in recent
theories)

Question 4

Grammatical = function words

Answer 4

Determiner (articles,
demonstrative and possessive
det., quantifiers, etc.)
Pronoun
Conjunction
Auxiliary (verb)
Preposition (in trad. theories)

Question 5

Nouns

Answer 5

• refer to entities; physical objects, people, substances, places, ab-
  stract objects

-lexical heads of phrases that function as grammatical subjects, objects, complements; accompanied, e.g., by preceding adjectives or determiners

Question 6

Verbs

Answer 6

• denote actions, states and processes
• lexical heads of phrases that function as predicate; accompanied by auxiliaries or adverbs

Question 7

Primary auxiliaries

Answer 7

• be: compulsory for marking the grammatical categories of passive voice and progressive aspect
• have: compulsory for marking the grammatical category
  perfect
• do: compulsory in negation and question formation when no other auxiliary is present

Question 8

Modal auxiliaries

Answer 8

• can, could, may, etc.
• allow to express hypothetical events, necessities, possibilities, beliefs etc.

Question 9

Adjective

Answer 9

• denote properties, qualities and features
• typically modify nouns

Question 10

Adverbs

Answer 10

• refer to qualities or degrees of properties and actions
• modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs
  Subtypes: Time, Frequency, Manner, Place, Degree

Question 10

Pronouns

Answer 10

• stand for and “point to” to other referential elements
• substitute complete noun phrases, not just nouns
• Subtypes: Definite article, Indefinite article, Demonstrative determiners, Possessive determiners, Quantifiers, Cardinal numbers

Question 11

Preposition

Answer 11

• relations in space (e.g. across, behind) or time (e.g. during, before)
• always followed by a noun phrase

Question 12

Conjunctions

Answer 12

• express relationships (spatial, temporal, causal, conditional, …) between the elements they link
• link clauses, phrases and words
• Subtypes: Coordinating conjunctions, Subordinating conjunctions, Correlative conjunctions

Question 13

Phrases

Answer 13

• consist either of one word or a group of words
• have one central, obligatory element that determines the syntactic category of the whole phrase (= head)

Question 14

Complement

Answer 14

a subordinate phrase required by the head of the superordinate phrase:

• prepositions take NPs as their complements
  e.g. [PPinto [NPthe wild]]

Question 15

Modifier

Answer 15

an optional phrase that modifies the head of the superordinate phrase;

• APs often serve as modifiers within NPs
  e.g. [NPmy [APskilled] co-worker]

Question 16

Recursion

Answer 16

phrases can be embedded within phrases (of the same type) repeatedly, and theoretically ad infinitum

Question 17

Clauses

Answer 17

• syntactic unit at a level between phrases and (complex) sentences
• contains exactly one main/full verb plus the constituents relating to this verb (e.g. subject,
  direct object, …).

Question 18

main clauses (“independent clauses”)

Answer 18

can stand on their own as a complete sentence →
always finite clauses

Question 19

subordinate clauses (“dependent clauses”)

Answer 19

→ cannot stand on their own because they depend on, and are embedded into, a superordinate syntactic unit → may be non-finite clauses

Question 20

Sentence

Answer 20

= largest independent syntactic unit of a language
- usually has a subject-predicate structure, including at least one finite verb
- declarative (statement), interrogative (question) or imperative (command)

Question 21

Simple(x) sentence:

Answer 21

sentence: contains exactly one clause, typically with a simple subject-predicate structure

Question 22

Complex sentence

Answer 22

a combination of at least two clauses, which are coordinated or subordinated

Question 23

Problems with determining word classes

Answer 23

• word form can belong to more than one word class
• alternative classifications possible
• some parts of speech are more heterogeneous than others
• not all members of a certain class exhibit all characteristics usually described to that word class to the same degree