SY3 Understanding Politics (A02 & exam skills) Flashcards
The following flash cards will help improve your skills of analysis/evaluation & strengthen your memory through spaced retrieval practice and a technique called elaborative interrogation.
WHAT IS ELABORATIVE INTERROGATION?
Elaborative Interrogation involves the learner looking for explanations for facts. A sizable body of evidence suggests that prompting students to answer ‘WHY’ & ‘HOW’ questions facilitates learning.
To help you do this think as hard as possible about the E.I. questions at the bottom of each answer in the following flash cards. What we think hard about is what we remember
►’Memory is the residue of thought’ (Dan Willingham)
What are the main sociological explanations of power in contemporary society?
Power = The capacity to get your own way in society
- Marxists argue that political power is ultimately linked to the ownership of the means of production. In other words political power is based on economic power
- Classical Elite theories argue that the concentration of power in elites is an inevitable (and sometimes desirable) fact of life
- Mills argues that within the USA there is a ‘power elite’ made up of three inter-related elites (business, military and political), whose members move easily from one to the other. Williams has also identified the existence of an equivalent UK power elite, particularly centred on the power of financial elites in the City
- Pluralists argue that within representative democracies power is widely dispersed amongst many different groups and individuals rather than being concentrated in a ruling class or elite
- Functionalists regard power differentials as necessary for the effective pursuit of collective goals. If members of society pool their efforts and resources they are more likely to realise their shared goals than if they operate as individuals. Cooperation on a large scale requires organisation and direction, which necessitate positions of command (we need leaders to take decisions on our behalf)
E.I. WHY do Marxists argue that political power is based on economic power? WHY do Classical Elite Theorists talk of an ‘iron law of oligarchy’? WHY do Pluralists believe that power is widely disperesed? WHY do Functionalists say that we need leaders?
https://youtu.be/BpxhmjvxnWM?t=5s
https://youtu.be/7ww6P9GMssU?t=5s
https://youtu.be/V8M7RIkE_QA?t=5s
What are some of the strengths of Pluralist explanations of power?
- There is empirical evidence to support this theory (e.g. ‘Who Governs?’ by Robert Dahl)
- This evidence focuses on the first face of power (decision making) which can be observed & measured more easily than the second & third faces of power
- They argue that political power is dynamic rather than static (i.e. it moves around rather than always being concentrated in a particular group)
- Wireless communications/web 2.0 might be making it easier for groups without many resources to influence the political process
E.I. - WHY is the first face of power easier to measure objectively than the second & third faces? WHY is power not always concentrated in the same groups? HOW are new technologies allowing more groups to have political influence? https://youtu.be/uHvQKnIePN0?t=7m37s
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Pluralist explanations of power?
- Lukes argues that they fail to take into account the second face of power
- Lukes argues that they fail to take into account the third face of power
- Political decisions, particularly those relating to economic policy, are influenced more by business and financial elites than pressure groups and ordinary voters
- Recent research in the USA by Martin Gilens suggests that when a majority of citizens disagrees with economic elites they generally lose
E.I. - WHY are the points above criticisms of Pluralism? WHY might some issues never reach the point of decision making? WHY is it important to consider the third face of power? WHY might financial elites have more power than other groups? https://youtu.be/uHvQKnIePN0?t=8m37s
What are some of the strengths of Marxist explanations of power?
- The continued concentration of wealth in the hands of the capitalist class provides evidence of this groups power
- Recent research in the USA by Martin Gilens suggests that when a majority of citizens disagrees with economic elites they generally lose
- The social background of the people who run the state & the existence of a ‘revolving door’ connecting politics and business support this view
E.I. - WHY is the concentration of wealth linked to the concentration of power? HOW are politics and business connected by a ‘revolving door’? WHY do economic elites have more power than the majority of citizens? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgiW6EzKWDA
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Marxist explanations of power?
- It exaggerates the importance of economic power (‘economic determinism’)
- It doesn’t offer a credible alternative to capitalism
- The proletariat may not be falsely class conscious but prefer the consumer choice and freedoms of capitalism
E.I. - WHY is economic power not the only source of political influence? WHY does this theory not have a credible alternative to capitalism? WHY is the idea of ‘false consciousness’ patronising? https://youtu.be/LUcxb9Ictb0?t=8m42s
What are some of the strengths of Classical Elite Theory explanations of power?
- It avoids the economic determinism of Marxism
- The failure of communist revolutions and the ‘Arab Spring’ supports Michels’ ‘iron law of oligarchy’
E.I. - HOW does Classical Elite Theory avoid economic determinism? WHY do the failures of communist revolutions and the Arab Spring support this theory?
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Classical Elite Theory explanations of power?
- Classical Elite theorists such as Pareto can be criticised for simply assuming that elites are superior to the masses. No criteria are provided by which we could measure the ‘superior qualities’ of elites
- It ignores the important differences between political systems (from their perspective both socialism and democracy are seen to conceal elites)
E.I. WHY might it be wrong to assume that elites are superior to the masses? WHY is it simplistic to argue that all political systems are essentially very similar?
What are some of the strengths of Power Elite Theory explanations of power?
- There is evidence from both the UK and USA of ‘elite self-recruitment’– i.e. most people recruited into elites tend to come from elite background
- There is evidence of cohesion, with people having positions in more than one elite, and a ‘revolving door’ connecting the military, business and political elites.
- There is further evidence of cohesion with elite members having shared educational backgrounds
- The fact that military spending adds up to more than half of the Federal Government’s annual discretionary spending in the USA shows the contemporary relevance of this theory
E.I. WHY is elite self recruitment so common? HOW does the ‘revolving door’ operate? WHY do elites often have a shared educational background? HOW does military spending in the USA support this theory?
What are some of the weaknesses and criticisms of Power Elite Theory explanations of power?
- Although many top positions are held by people from elite backgrounds, that does not actually prove that they act to further their interests rather than the mass of the population
- Elites may be much more fragmented and far less unified than this perspective suggests according to Budge
E.I. - WHY do some critics argue that Power Elite Theory is a ‘conspiracy theory’? WHY might elites be less cohesive and unified than this theory suggests?
How much time do I have for the SY3 exam paper in total?
You have one and a half hours in total for the SY3 exam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWIkWd0Njk0&list=PL416u5bH2h7GJPiddBotTE7xuvu_kS6HH&index=19
What are some of the main arguments & evidence that support the view that political participation is in decline?
(Political participation = any activity that shapes, affects or involves the political sphere)
- A long term decline in voter turnout at elections, particularly amongst younger votes (e.g. estimated turnout for 18-24 year olds was only 43% in the 2015 General Election)
- A long term decline in membership of the main political parties (e.g. in the early 1950s the Conservative party had 3 million members, now less than 200,00)
- A long term decline in trade union membership and activism
- Many members of pressure groups are merely ‘cheque book members’
E.I.- WHY are many people, especially the young, increasingly detached from party politics? WHY has there been a decline in Trade Unionism? WHY are many members of pressure groups not particularly active?
What are some of the main arguments & evidence against the view that political participation is in decline?
(Political participation = any activity that shapes, affects or involves the political sphere)
- According to Castells over the last 6 years a wave of social movements has taken place around the world. This has effected thousands of cities and over a 100 countries, including the UK
- An increase in new forms of political activism (e.g. hacktivism and ethical consumerism)
- Membership of some smaller parties has increased in recent years (e.g. the Greens, UKIP & SNP)
- Membership of the Labour party has nearly doubled since the General election – from 201,293 in May to 388,407
- David Bailey’s empirical research shows that 2015 had the highest frequency of reported protest events in the UK since the 1970s
E.I. - WHY might one argue that political participation is changing rather than declining? HOW are new technologies linked to the points above? WHY has membership of the Labour party increased?
How much time should I spend on the 15 mark Understanding Politics question?
You should spend a minimum of twenty minutes and no more than a maximum of 30 minutes on this section of the SY3 exam
►Watch the following screencast for guidance on exam technique for this section of the exam
Outline and explain the role of the Nation State
Nation States are countries that have their own central systems of political and legal authority. They operate within specific boundaries and they have legal control over the population within these boundaries.
The legal and political institutions that make up the Nation State have the following roles:
- To propose, make and implement laws. (this is the role of the executive and state legislature)
- To protect the nation state (this is the role of the military)
- To maintain social order (this is the role of formal agencies of social control i.e. the police & judiciary). A key feature of the state according to Weber is its ability to use legitimate violence against those within its political and geographical boundaries
- To provide services (e.g. the ‘welfare state’). In order to do this the Nation state has the ability to collect taxes from the population within its territory.
E.I. HOW is the concept of sovereignty related to the role of Nation States? WHY is the role of the nation state changing as a result of globalisation and devolution?
Outline & explain the reasons for devolution in the UK
Devolution is the dispersal of power away from the centre towards outlying areas. It happens when national governments give more power to regional/local governments. In UK politics the term is used to describe the transfer of power from the UK Parliament to Scotland, Wales & Northern Ireland
- Democratic Pluralism: power handled at more than one level rather than being concentrated in the UK Parliament
- Participation: elections at local levels allow far wider participation
- Identity: allows people to express their territorial identity/loyalty through government of the area
- Economic Efficiency: use of public resources more efficient where government closer to the governed
E.I. - WHY might it be better for power to be distributed to a regional level rather than being concentrated at a national level? WHY does devolution create more opportunities for political participation? WHY might devolved assemblies spend money more efficiently than national bodies?
Outline and explain the impact of globalisation on the role of nation states?
Globalisation = the increasing interconnectedness of individuals, nations and regions in the world
Useful quote: “The nation-state is becoming too small for the big problems of life, and too big for the small problems of life. . . . In short, there is a mismatch of scale.” (Bell, 1987)
- According to Giddens global issues such as climate change, terrorism and international financial crises cannot be managed by nation-states alone
- Nation states have to compete with each other for international investment, (e.g. attracting TNCs to their country in order to create employment), and may even have to compromise some of their policies on taxation and welfare as a result
- It is difficult for Nation States to regulate and tax transnational economic activity (especially due to the existence of tax havens)
- Global communications and the internet have made it difficult for states to regulate the flow of information across borders
E.I. - WHY is the growing importance of supranational organisations connected to the points above? ? WHY does globalisation impact upon the sovereignty of nation states? HOW is the ‘great firewall of China’ linked to point 4?
Outline and explain the differences between left wing & right wing political ideologies
Political ideology = A coherent set of ideas and beliefs that provide the basis for some form of political action
E.I. - HOW are these beliefs translated into policies? WHY might the policies of the current government be seen as right wing? WHY might the policies of the Labour party be seen as left wing?
https://youtu.be/4O7Z690WPiM?t=1m30s
How much time should I spend on the 45 mark Understanding Politics question?
You should spend 60-65 minutes on this section of the SY3 exam (make sure you plan your answer)
►Watch the following screencast for guidance on exam technique for this section of the exam
What are the main sociological explanations of voting behaviour?
Voting Behaviour = The study of how the electorate behaves in elections. There are two key issues:
What are the reasons for variations in turnout in recent elections? How do people decide who to vote for?
David Denver identifies 3 main types of explanations:
- Party Identification Model: This is where voting was seen as an expression of loyalty to a party, a commitment which was both deep seated and long lasting. In the 1950 & 60s the social basis of this party loyalty was social class
- Rational choice model: In relation to variations in turnout this approach directs attention to the costs and benefits of voting, suggesting that turnout will be greater when there are more incentives to vote and costs are kept at a minimum). In relation to party choice rational choice theory looks at how this decision is shaped by voter’s policy preferences
- Valence Voting: A model of voting behaviour which emphasises that individuals vote based upon people’s judgements of the overall competence of the rival political parties. In particular they make judgements about the party leaders (in relation to things like ‘trust’ and their perceived ‘strength’).
E.I. WHY is the Party Identification Model dated? WHY is the Rational Choice Model linked to partisan and class dealignent? WHY might it be difficult for voters to make rational choices in relation to policy preferences? WHY are voter judgements about party leaders more important than ever?
What are some of the arguments and evidence in support of the view that new technologies have dramatically influenced political participation and protest?
New technologies = Web 2.0 & Wireless communications (e.g. Smart phones)
- Internet social networks are spaces of autonomy that are very difficult for authorities to suppress
- Castells argues that social networking and video-sharing sites have had a huge influence on new social movements such as the ‘Arab Spring’, ‘Indignadas’, ‘Occupy Movement’ & ‘Black Lives Matter’ (they are a product of the ‘age of the internet’)
- Social movements are able to spread virally and globally as a result of new technologies
- The internet helps to create and maintain ‘horizontalism’
- New technologies allow protestors to become ‘citizen journalists’
- It is now far easier (and cheaper) for pressure groups and political parties to identify and communicate with potential supporters
E.I. - WHY is it difficult to suppress internet social networks? WHY are recent social movements a product of the ‘age of the internet’?
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that new technologies have dramatically influenced political participation and protest?
New technologies = Web 2.0 & Wireless communications (e.g. Smart phones)
- Fairclough argues that it would be wrong to see the recent rise in direct action as being solely caused by new technologies. The poll tax riots, the fuel protests of 2000, or even further back to the suffragettes - all of these happened before Web 2.0 & wireless communications
- Castells argues that whilst online activism can be effective, recent major political change has required boots on the ground – and the intersection between urban space and cyberspace is where to find the most interesting modern social movements (‘hybrid space’)
- Not all sections of society are able use new technologies for political protest and participation. There may be generational differences reflecting a ‘digital divide’
- New media, measured by things like supportive tweets, was more pro –Labour during the 2015 General election campaign. However the Conservatives, backed by the majority of newspapers (i.e. ‘old media’), won the election
E.I. - WHY might it be a mistake to over-emphasise the impact of new technologies on political participation? WHY might some groups be excluded from online political participation?
http://www.channel4.com/news/social-media-general-election-2015-youtube-facebook-twitter
Outline and explain the characteristics of a bureaucracy
A bureaucracy is an organisation based on the principle of legal-rational authority. The civil service is an example
E.I. - WHAT are the advantages of a bureaucracy? WHY might bureaucracy create an ‘iron cage’, which limits individual human freedom and potential?
https://youtu.be/LnwWWu6d1K0?t=2m50s
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a claim?
These are questions that typically ask you to ‘evaluate/assess a view’, or start with the command ‘to what extent’
Outline and explain the role of political parties
A political party = a group of people organised for the purpose of winning government power through elections
According to Duncan Watts political parties perform (at least in theory) the following roles or functions:
- Parties recruit representatives for the national legislature (Parliament), so they influence the choice of people who serve in government
- Parties are the best way to ensure competitive elections that offer a meaningful choice of candidates. The political demands of groups and individuals are combined into policy programs & manifestos - a process that Fielding calls the ‘aggregation of interests’
- Parties educate the electorate by developing, elaborating and promoting policies
- Parties offer an opportunity for popular participation in the political process
E.I. WHY might it be argued that political parties are no longer successful in carrying out all of the roles above? WHY has membership of many parties been in long term decline?
Outline & explain the reasons for partisan dealignment
Partisan dealignment = a decline in the extent to which people identify themselves with a political party
- People are now very distrustful of most political parties. Castells call this a crisis of legitimation. Gerry Stoker talks about ‘anti-politics’
- Ivor Crewe argues that one of the causes of partisan dealignment is the diminishing capacity of social class to influence party choice (i.e. ‘class dealignment’)
- Shifts in parties’ policies and ideological beliefs have alienated some of their traditional supporters
- According to the valence model voters often base their decision on the perceived competence of party leaders rather than any long standing loyalty to a political party
E.I. - WHY are people less likely to trust political parties now? WHY might class identities have declined? WHY might people focus more on leaders than political parties?
Outline and explain the reasons for class dealignment
Class dealignment = the weakening of the relationship between social class and party support due to a weakening of class identities in society. This trend is reflected in a declining proportion of working-class voters supporting Labour and middle-class voters supporting the Conservatives
- The old concept of class solidarity – that everyone in a particular social class behaves in the same way – has been undermined. E.g. the decline in trade union membership has weakened working class solidarity
- Embourgeoisement - this is where growing affluence and home ownership has encouraged some working-class voters to think of themselves as being middle class
- Individualisation – this is the postmodernist idea that group identities, such as social class, have become less important, and that we are now more likely to see ourselves as individuals rather than members of social groups
- Voters have been increasingly affected by whether they work in the public sector or the private sector. These cleavages cut across class differences. (e.g. all public sector employees are more likely to vote Labour – even those from professional middle class backgrounds)
E.I. - WHY are writers such as John Curtice sceptical about the idea of class dealignment? WHY might we be seeing a process of class realignment rather than class dealignment?
Outline and explain the role of the legislature
Legislature = An institution of the state with the power to make and change the law (legislation). In the UK this is the Parliament based in Westminster, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords
- Check and challenge the work of the Government (scrutiny)
- Make and change laws (legislation)
- Debate the important issues of the day (debating)
- Check and approve Government spending (budget/taxes)
- Represent the public (democracy & representation)
E.I. WHY might the legiislature not always be effective in scrutinising the Government? WHY do some people argue that Parliament should be more socially representative of the British public?
Outline and explain what is meant by nationalism
- It is s belief or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with or becoming attached to one’s nation. Benedict Anderson claims that a ‘nation’ is an imagined community in which millions of people who will never actually meet each other in person see themselves as belonging to a country
- It is a term used to describe those wanting Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland to become more independent from the rest of the United Kingdom. For example the Scottish National Party view devolution as a stepping stone towards complete independence for the Scottish nation
- It is also sometimes used to describe an extreme form of patriotism marked by a feeling of superiority over other countries i.e. what is sometime referred to as right wing extremism. Right wing extremists try to exclude certain groups, defining the national community in ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historic, or religious terms (or a combination of these)
E.I.- WHY are English, Welsh & Scottish national identities increasingly becoming more important to people than a British identity? WHY would Marxists be critical of the idea of Nationalism?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate a theory?
Assess the role of pressure groups
(Flash card no.1 - the positive role)
►The underlying debate for this type of question is the extent to which pressure groups are an essential and positive feature of democracies
Pressure group = an organised group that seeks to influence government (public) policy or protect or advance a particular cause or interest
- Pluralists argue that PGs are an essential feature of representative democracy. This is beause poitical parties alone are inadequate for representing everyone’s needs and interests due to the diversity of views within society
- PGs therefore allow for more continuous and calibrated representation of views within society and provide decision makers with a useful barometer of public opinion in the time inbetween elections
- PGs stimulate debate and discussion, helping to create a better informed and more educated electorate
- Some pressure groups, e.g. The BMA, have specialist knowledge that can help inform the decisions taken by government
E.I. WHY do pressure groups ensure that the power of the state is kept in check? WHY might pressure groups function as a kind of safety valve in the political system? WHY might PG participation be especially attracive to the young and those disillusioned by party politics?https://youtu.be/Q4NhiF-5FEg?t=9m14s
Assess the role of pressure groups
(Flash card no.2 - the *negative* role)
►The underlying debate for this type of question is the extent to which pressure groups are an essential and positive feature of democracies
Pressure group = an organised group that seeks to influence government (public) policy or protect or advance a particular cause or interest
- Marxists argue that more wealthy PGs which represent business and employers can afford ways of exerting more pressure than other PGs (e.g. by hiring professional lobbyists)
- Theerfore despite ‘countervailing groups’, which Pluralists suggest mean that competing interests are balanced, competition between PGs is often unequal (e.g. wealthy busines groups and ‘insider groups have far more influence)
- Can lead to ‘hyperpluralism’ - where PGs are so strong that a government in unable to function and govern in the national interest
- Being non-elected PGs exercise power without responsibility
E.I. - WHY might PGs make societies more difficult to govern? WHY might PGs sometimes be socially and politically divisive? WHY are new technologies changing the role of pressure groups?
How do I structure longer essay questions that ask me to evaluate sociological explanations?
What are some of the main sociological explanations of New Social Movements in contemporary society?
Social Movement = A large group of people who are distinguished by common aspirations and a high level of political commitment, but often acting within a very loose organisational framework
New Social Movement = This term is used to refer to social movements that have emerged from the 1960s onwards. The 1960s saw the emergence of many new types of social movements including the ‘second wave’ of feminism, Civil Rights and Anti-Racist Movements, Gay Rights Movements, Environmental or Green Movements and the Peace Movement
- Chomsky argues that throughout history social movements have been key levers of social change. NSMs have led to both a change in people’s consciousness and have precipitated important legal reform in relation to rights for women, ethnic minorities and gays and lesbians
- According to Castells underlying the development of NSMs there must be a strong motivation & a sense that something can be achieved. NSMs are triggered by emotions (especially ‘outrage and hope’) that are shared collectively through a process of communication
- In relation to the above it has been easier for NSMs to share emotions collectively through rapid innovations in communications technology linked to the Internet and mobile technologies. Social networking and video-sharing sites have had a huge influence on new social movements such as the ‘Arab Spring’, ‘Indignadas’, ‘Occupy Movement’ & ‘Black Lives Matter’ (they are a product of the ‘age of the internet’)
- The viral growth of NSMs may also reflect a crisis of legitimation in relation to conventional party politics and government
- NSMs are a reflection of the grwing importance people attach to forms of identity other than social class (i.e. the ‘identity politics’ of gender, ethnicity, sexuality etc.)
- Some social movements have a post-material orientation, being more concerned with ‘quality of life’ issues (e.g. environmental issues) than with material advancement. This may reflect the relative affluence of many people involved in NSMs
E.I. - WHY might one argue that contemporary NSMs have not actually achieved very much (in contrast to the ‘levers of social change’ argument)? WHY should we be careful not to exaggerate the impact of new technologies on NSMs? WHY are NSMs linked to a crisis of legitimation? WHY have forms of identity other than social class become more politically significant?
What are some of the arguments and evidence that support the view that voting behaviour is linked to social class?
- In the 1950s & 60s strong party identification was often said to go hand in hand with class alignment – that is to say that the party one voted for was most often the party of one’s class (the working class was expected to vote Labour and the middle classes were supposed to vote Conservative)
- The idea of class dealignment is based on an assumption that people no longer see themselves as being part of a social class (i.e. individualisation). However the British Social Attitudes Survey finds no evidence that class identities have weakened over time.
- We are seeing class realignment rather than class dealignment. Although the link between people’s class position and whether they support Labour or Conservative is markedly weaker than it was 30 years ago this is because these parties have changed rather than a decline in class identities. Curtice argues that class in the broadest sense still matters but the way in which it is being articulated politically is by insurgent parties like UKIP and the SNP
- Social class has a significant impact on turnout. E.g. in the 2015 election 75% of the higher social classes AB voted compared to just 57% of the lower DE social classes
E.I. - WHY do you think that the British Social Attitudes Survey shows no long term decline in people identifying with a social class? HOW are UKIP trying to appeal to the working class? WHY does turnout correlate with social class?
What are some of the arguments and evidence against the view that voting behaviour is linked to social class?
- Crewe claims that class dealignment has occurred. This refers to a weakening in the relationship between class and voting as social class identities matter less to voters than before
- Statistics on ‘absolute class voting’ (the percentage of the electorate supporting the ‘natural party’ of their class) support Crewe’s argument. In 1966 66% of the electorate were ‘class voters’ but by 2005 only 41% of the electorate fell into this category
- More voters may be making ‘rational choices’ about who to vote for rather than following traditional class allegiances
- The valence voting model suggests people will pick a party to vote for not because of their class background but based on political matters such as the perceived competence of the party leaders
- Other social factors may be having more of an influence on voting behaviour than social class. For example the elderly population tend to be normative voters who feel a duty to turnout
E.I. - WHY might class dealignment have occured? WHY do some people criticise the rational choice model of voting behaviour? WHY might age be more significant in explaining turnout than social class?
What are some of the arguments & evidence in support of the view that the UK is a democracy?
Democracy = Government or rule by the people.
- The UK has one of the most established systems of representative democracy in the world with regular free and fair elections. It may be imperfect but it is based on democratic principles. Other democracies (e.g. India) are based on the UK system.
- Pluralists argue that representative democracies such as the UK allow the people to control the Government through competitive elections and the existence of pressure groups.
- If any major constitutional changes are proposed the UK Government allows the public a direct say through a referendum
- Human rights and civil liberties are protected under the Human Rights Act
E.I. WHY might ‘democracy’ be considered an ideal rather than something that can easily be achieved in the real world? WHY do Pluralists believe that the UK is a ‘polyarchy’? HOW does the Human Rights Act protect civil liberties?
What are some of the arguments & evidence against the view that the UK is a democracy?
Democracy = Government or rule by the people.
- Eurosceptics argue that the UK’s membership of the EU has created a democratic deficit (this is the argument that the EU institutions and their decision-making procedures suffer from a lack of democracy and seem inaccessible to the ordinary citizen due to their complexity)
- Michels believed that the ‘iron law of oligarchy’ meant that true democracy in any system (including the UK) was impossible to realise
- Marxists argue that democracy and capitalism are incompatible. In the UK we have a ‘ruling class’ rather than rule by the people
- Piketty argues that we are beginning to see levels of economic inequality (largely due to inherited wealth) that are undermining democracy
- Some of the constitutional features of the UK’s political system are not democratic (e.g. an unelected Monarch as the Head of State and an unelected House of Lords)
E.I. - WHY do eurosceptics see the EU as undemocratic? WHY did Michels believe that democracy was an illusion that disguised the oligarchic tendencies that lied beneath? WHY might wealth inequalities undermine democracy?
Outline and explain what is mean by authority?
Authority is the use of power that is perceived as legitimate by those it is used on. According to Weber it is derived from one or more of the following sources:
- Traditional Authority = Authority that is afforded to people because of the status their role in society has carried for generations.
- Charismatic Authority = Authority that is given to a person because of their “superhuman appeal” that is their charisma, likeability, and leadership skills
- Legal Rational Authority = Authority bestowed upon people based upon a system of impersonal legal or formal rules.
E.I. WHY can you have more than one source of authority at a time? WHY is the concept of a bureaucracy linked to legal rational authority?
Outline and explain what is meant by securalism?
It is a principle that involves two basic propositions:
- The strict separation of the state from religious institutions
- That people of different religions and beliefs are equal before the law
The complete opposite of secularism would be a theocracy (a political system where religious leaders have complete control over the state).
In Europe, France strictly adheres to the idea of secularism (so much so that within state schools children are forbidden for wearing overt symbols of their religion such as the Muslim Veil or large crucifixes).
The UK only follows the second principle of secularism (that people of different religions are equal before the law) but there is no separation of the state from religious institutions. In fact the Queen is both head of the State and head of the Church of England.
E.I. - WHY should religion and the state be kept separate? WHY doesn’t the UK strictly adhere to this principle?
Outline and explain the Functionalist explanation of power
- The key Functionalist theorist Talcott Parsons argues that if members of society pool their efforts and resources they are more likely to realise their shared goals than if they operate as individuals
- Cooperation on a large scale requires organisation and direction, which necessitate positions of command (we need leaders)
- Parsons therefore regarded power differentials as necessary for the effective pursuit of collective goals
- Thus from this viewpoint, the exercise of power usually means that everybody wins. This view is sometimes known as a variable sum concept of power.
E.I. WHY is Functionalism diametrically opposed to Marxism? WHY would this perspective be opposed to ‘horizontalism’?
Outline and explain what is meant by social resistance?
- It is a term used to describe attempts to resist powerful groups. Manuel Castells calls social resistance ‘counter-power’
- One way in which social resistance occurs is through the creation of social movements. A social movement is a large group of people who are distinguished by common aspirations and a high level of political commitment, but often acting within a very loose organisational framework. Castells argues that the last 6 years has seen the viral growth of social movements that have tried to resist the powerful groups in their society.
- Social resistance often involves the use of direct action. This involves political activity outside the formal political process which often relies on demonstrations and occupations on the streets aimed at attracting publicity. Most direct action is normally peaceful but it might occasionally involve violence.
- A new form of social resistance linked to the internet is ‘hacktivism’. This is the act of hacking, or breaking into a computer system, for a politically or socially motivated purpose. ‘Anonymous’ is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. The group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and cyber-attacks attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites (particularly those trying to control or censor the internet)
E.I. - WHY have new technologies enabled new forms of social resistance? WHY is direct action often used as a form of social resistance?
Outline and explain the role of formal agencies of social control
Social control = The processes by which society ensures that people conform to its culture, and the mechanisms by which it deals with deviance.
- Formal agencies of social control are those parts of the state which are responsible for enforcing the law and punishing those people who break the law (through the use of negative sanctions)
- This includes the Police, the Prison service and the Court System and Judiciary
- The Judiciary is the collective term for judges. The role of judges is to adjudicate the meaning of law and to decide legal disputes in a fair and balanced fashion
- The highest court in Britain is called ‘The Supreme Court’. Increasingly, however, national judiciaries are subject to the authority of supranational (international) courts, such as the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights.
E.I. WHY has the threat of terrorism arguably increased the power of formal agencies of social control at the expense of civil liberties? WHY have police tactics in relation to political protest been criticised?
Outline and explain what is meant by Federalism?
- Federalism is a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (such as states or provinces)
- The best known example of Federalism is the USA (see video link below). Under the US constitution power is divided between the national government (what they call the ‘Federal Government’) and the regional governments of the 50 states that make up the USA.
- In the UK we are arguably moving towards a similar federal style of multi-layered governance through devolution
- Devolution in the UK has involved the creation of powerful regional legislatures such as the Scottish Parliament and Welsh National Assembly. However the power of the devolved assemblies is ultimately based on an Act of Parliament rather than part of a written constitution and therefore isn’t technically Federalism (the UK national parliament could take power away from these regional assemblies if it so wished or abolish them altogether)
- One of the main benefits of Federalism is that decentralisation stops power being too concentrated in National Governments
E.I. - WHY is devolution edging the UK to a form of governance similar to Federalism? WHY might some argue that the EU is based on Federalism? WHY might we want to prevent power from being too concentrated in National Governments?
Outline and explain what is meant by state regulation?
State regulation is where the government controls a market by introducing laws that businesses have to follow. For example:
- Laws that discourage companies from damaging the environment
- Laws that prevent companies from becoming too big and therefore threatening competition
- Laws that protect workers (e.g. a minimum wage, recognition of trade unions)
- Laws that protect consumers (e.g. regulating the health and safety of products)
- Laws that prohibit certain forms of advertising (e.g. controls on advertising for tobacco and alcohol)
E.I. WHY does the issue of state regulation tend to divide left and right wing political ideologies? WHY did the deregulation of the banks (the ‘big bang’) contribute to the global financial crisis?
Outline and explain what is meant by the military?
- The military is the collective term for the Armed Forces (army, navy and air-force). Virtually all Nation States invest a significant proportion of their GDP in the Armed Forces with the notable exception of Costa Rica who has declared ‘peace on the world’ by abolishing their military
- The UK is one of only 9 nations to have nuclear weapons as part of their military
- The USA is the biggest spender in the world when it comes to the military. The US military budget is now larger than the next 25 biggest spenders put together. C Wright Mills regarded military leaders to be part of an American Power Elite
- ‘Militarism’ is a cultural and ideological phenomenon in which military priorities, ideals and values come to pervade the larger society. This typically includes the glorification of the armed forces, a heightened sense of national patriotism, the recognition of war as a legitimate instrument of policy, and a belief in the heroism and self-sacrifice of war
E.I. WHY did President Eisenhower warn the public about the threat to democracy posed by a ‘military industrial complex’?
