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Supra-spinal Control 2 - Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia Flashcards

1
Q

Name 3 other tracts (other than the corticospinal tract).

A
  • Rubrospinal Tract
  • Reticulospinal Tract
  • Vestibulospinal Tract
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2
Q

How do the cerebellum & basal ganglia influence movement?

A
  • Do not have their own tracts
  • They exert influence on movements via other tracts especially corticospinal tracts
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3
Q

Give some facts about the cerebellum.

  • Name
  • Volume
  • Percentage of Brain Neurones
  • Location
A
  • ‘Lesser Brain’
  • 10% Total Brain Volume
  • >50% of Total Brain Neurons
  • Located Above the 4th Ventricle (above the medulla)
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4
Q

What are the majority of neurones of the cerebellum called?

A
  • Granule Cells
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5
Q

Cerebellum function?

A
  • Fine Motor Control during Movements

Requies high levels of computational power just to give fine motor control

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6
Q

What are the 3 parts of the cerebellum?

A
  • Central Strip –> Vermis
  • Laterally –> Hemispheres
  • Between them –> Intermediate Area
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7
Q

Name the 4 nuclei of the cerebellum.

A
  • Dentate
  • Emboliform
  • Globose
  • Fastigial
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8
Q

Where is the dentate nucleus located?

A
  • Most Lateral
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9
Q

Where is the fastigial nucleus found?

A
  • Most Medial
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10
Q

What are the emboliform + globose nuclei called?

Where are they found?

A
  • Interposed Pair
  • Between dentate & fastigial nuclei
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11
Q

What processes information that comes into the cerebellum?

A
  • Granule Cells
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12
Q

What neurone/cell projects out from the cortex to one of the subcortical grey matter structures (i.e. cerebellar deep nuclei)?

A
  • Purkinje Cells
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13
Q

From where do purkinje cells project?

Where do they project to?

A
  • From –> Lateral Hemispheres (largest part)
  • Projected to –> Dentate Nucleus (lateral nucleus)
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14
Q

To where do fibres from the intermediate cerebellar cortex project to?

A
  • Interposed Pair (intermediate nuclei)
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15
Q

To where do fibres from the cerebellar cortex midline project to?

A
  • Fastigial (medial) nucleus
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16
Q

What is the source of the vestibulospinal tract?

A
  • Vestibular Nucleus
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17
Q

What is the vestibular nucleus responsible for?

A

Balance

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18
Q

What does a small region of the cerebellar cortex do?

A

Small projection which bypasses the deep nuclei completely –> go to vestibular nuclei directly

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19
Q

Where does the fastigial nucleus also project?

A
  • Vestibular Nuclei
  • Important for Posture & Balance
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20
Q

Where do the interposed pair project to?

A
  • Emboliform + Globose

Project forward & cross –> to the:

  • Red Nucleus (mostly - source of rubrospinal system)
  • Ventral-Lateral Nucleus Thalamus (main input for M1)
  • Ventral-_Anterior_ Nucleus Thalamus (main input for premotor cortex)
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21
Q

How does the cerebellum influence voluntary actions?

A
  • Influences motor & premotor cortex
  • Via the Thalamus
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22
Q

Where does the cerebellar output go?

A
  • Crosses (to contralateral side)
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23
Q

What are the 2 potential destinations of purkinje fibre outputs from the cerebellar cortex?

A
  • Vestibular Nuclei
  • Deep Cerebellar Nuclei
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24
Q

How are purkinje fibres in the cerebellar cortex layer arranged?

A
  • Purkinke Fibre Cell Bodies –> sit in the Purkinje Cell Layer
  • Dendrites –> stick up into the molecular layer
  • Axons –> go down into the deep cerebellar nuclei
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25
Q

What is the nature of purkinje fibres?

A
  • Inhibitory
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26
Q

What are the 2 types of cell input into the cerebellum?

A
  1. Mossy Fibres
  2. Climbing Fibres
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27
Q

Describe the path of the mossy fibres.

A
  • Ascending Fibres –> terminating upon granule cells
  • Their axons bifurcate & run along the cerebellar cortex which penetrates through dendritic trees of purkinje cells in the cortex
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28
Q

What is special about the purkinje cells?

A
  • They are completely flat (fan-shaped)
  • If you look at it from midline -> they are a thin line
  • Parralel Fibres (granule cells) –> coming from the side –> will go through one small part of it (synapse)
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29
Q

Describe the path of the climbing fibres.

A
  • Climb up the purkinke fibre
  • Climb over the dendritic tree
  • There is one climbing fibre per purkinje cell
  • They have multiple synapses from the same fibre
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30
Q

Where do climbing fibres originally come from?

A

Inferior Olive (upper medulla)

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31
Q

Where do mossy fibres come from?

What modalities do they convey?

A
  • Come from lots of places
  • Convey all types of sensory modalities except olfaction & taste
  • Provide lots of contextual information from around the body
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32
Q

How is motor instruction integrated?

A
  • Copy of motor instruction –> sent out from motor cortex regarding desired movement
  • This goes to the cerebellum to the dendritic tree
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33
Q

What is the function of the climbing fibre?

A
  • Single Instruction
  • Provides instruction to learn
  • Causes modifications of synaptic weights in dendritic tree –> so that movements can be made better & more accurate
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34
Q

Name the 3 major transverse lobes (divisions).

A
  • Anterior Lobe
  • Posterior Lobe
  • Flocculo-nodular lobe
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35
Q

Name the 2 deep transverse fissures which separate these lobes.

A
  • Primary Fissure
  • Posterolateral Fissure
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36
Q

How are these transverse divisions further divided?

A
  • Each lobe is divided into several lobules containing individual folia
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37
Q

Where is the intermediate region found?

A
  • Between vermis & hemispheres
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38
Q

What does the primary fissure divide?

A
  • Anterior Lobe
  • Posterior Lobe

(nothing to do with embryological origin)

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39
Q

What is the vermis & flocculo-nodular lobe?

A
  • Vermis –> Vertical
  • Flocculo-nodular lobe –> Transverse
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40
Q

What is the central part of the flocculo-nodular lobe called?

A
  • Nodulus
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41
Q

What are the 3 major sagittal divisions?

A
  • Medial Cerebellum (vermis)
  • Intermediate Cerebellum (pars intermedia)
  • Lateral Cerebellum (hemispheres)
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42
Q

What is the prefix for the subdivisions in the sagital plane?

A
  • Begins with H
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43
Q

How are fibres distributed in the sagital plane?

A
  • Right Cerebellum –> projects to the Right Cerebellar Nuclei
  • Output from nuclei –> crosses
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44
Q

What does the superior cerebellar artery supply?

A
  • Anterior Lobe
  • (Part of the) Posterior Lobe
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45
Q

What does the posterior-inferior cerebellar/cerebral artery supply?

A
  • Posterior Lobe
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46
Q

What does the anterior-inferior cerebellar/cerebral artery supply?

A
  • Posterior Lobe
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47
Q

Which part of the cerebellum influences the vestibular function?

(Vestibulocerebellum)

A
  • Flocculo-Nodular Lobe
  • Vermis
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48
Q

What do the flocculo-nodular lobe & vermis control?

A
  • Proximal Muscles
  • Limb Extensors
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49
Q

Flocculo-nodular lobe.

  • Input?
  • Output?
A
  • Input –> Vestibular Labyrinth
  • Output –> directly to Vestibular Nuclei
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50
Q

Vermis.

  • Input?
  • Output?
A
  • Input –> Neck & Trunk + Vestibular Labyrinth + Retinal & Extraocular Muscles

​

  • Output –> focused on Ventro-Medial Descending System of Brainstem (i.e. reticulospinal & vestibulospinal) + cortex (corticospinal fibres)
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51
Q

Generally, what is the floccular-nodular lobe + vermis important for?

A
  • Balance
  • Posture
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52
Q

To where does the majority of ascending spinocerebellar tract take sensory information (including propioception) to in the cerebellum?

Which nuclei particularly?

(Spinocerebellum)

A
  • Intermediate Parts of the Cerebellum
  • Globolusform
  • Fastigial Nucleus
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53
Q

What does the intermediate cerebellum receive information from?

What kind of information?

A
  • Sensory Information from the Limbs
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54
Q

What does the intermediate cerebellum control?

Tracts?

A
  • Dorso-Lateral Descending Systems
  • Rubrospinal + Corticospinal Tracts
  • Acting on the Ipsilateral Limb (double cross)
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55
Q

From where does the lateral cerebellum gets its input?

Tract called?

A
  • Cortical input via pontine nucleus
  • Pontocerebellum
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56
Q

What does the lateral cerebellum influence?

Via which nucleus?

A
  • Motor & Premotor Cortex
  • Via ventro-lateral nucleus of the thalamus
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57
Q

Where does the lateral cerebellum send its signals first before leaving the cerebellum?

A
  • Dentate Nucleus (lateral)
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58
Q

What is meant by the looping architecture?

A
  • Allows modulation & modification of motor instructions –> whilst the movements are being made
59
Q

Generally describe how the cerebellum functions?

A
  • Copy of instruction is sent to the cerebellum from M1
  • Cerebellum functions an an internal test model
  • Cerebellum reports back if the instructions were okay (does it conform to what internal model thinks?)
  • If not –> motor instructions quickly modified before mistake
  • Faster than working retrospectively
60
Q

What happens if an error is made?

A
  • Signals via the climbing fibre will ‘update’ the model in the cerebellum
  • Ensure it does not occur next time (learning function)
61
Q

What kinds of sensory information go into the cerebellum?

A
  • Sensory Information
  • Copies of Motor Instructions
62
Q

What input do the mossy fibres bring to the cerebellum?

A
  • Via dorsal & ventral ascending spinocerebellar tracts
  • Convery light/discriminative touch, pain & temperature etc. from the lower & upper body –> via external cuneatus
  • Mixture
63
Q

To where are visual & auditory cues sent?

(regarding how movements are going etc.)

A
  • Descending influence on pontine nuclei
  • Pontine Nuclei –> provides major source of mossy fibre input to cerebellum
  • Via ponto-cerebellum fibres
64
Q

Via what does vestibular information enter cerebellum?

A
  • Mossy Fibres
65
Q

What are the only 2 sensory modalities not inputted into the cerebellum?

A
  • Olfaction
  • Taste
66
Q

How are motor instructions sent to the cerebellum?

A
  • Collaterals from corticospinal tract –> sent to pontine nuclei
  • Feeding into cerebellum via mossy fibres
67
Q

Where do the climbing fibres come from?

What do climbing fibres do?

A
  • Inferior Olive (medulla)
  • ‘Update the Model’ if there is a mistake
68
Q

How does the cerebellum have its output?

A
  • No private pathway

It acceses the:

  • Corticospinal Tract
  • Rubrospinal Tract
  • Vestibulospinal Tract
69
Q

Where is a major output from the lateral parts of the cerebellum going to?

A
  • Thalamus + Motor Cortex
70
Q

Where is a smaller output from the intermediate parts of the cerebellum going to?

A
  • Red Nucleus
71
Q

An important output from the medial part of the cerebellum goes to?

A
  • Vestibular Nuclei
72
Q

Where do projections via the ventro-_anterior_ thalamus go?

A
  • Premotor Cortex
73
Q

Where do projections via the ventro-_lateral_ thalamus go?

A
  • Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
74
Q

Where do fibres from one side of the cerebellum go generally?

A
  • Contralateral Side

(I.e. left side of cerebellum affects the right side of the cerebral cortex)

75
Q

What side of the body does each side of the cerebellum control?

Why?

A
  • One Side of the Cerebellum –> controls the ipsilateral side of the body
  • Due to double cross

(left cerebellum controls right M1 –> however right M1 controls the left side of the body due to medullary dessucation)

76
Q

Generally where are the outputs of the following to:

  • Lateral Part of Cerebellum
  • Intermediate Part of Cerebellum
  • Medial Part of Cerebellum
A
  • Lateral Part –> MAJOR OUTPUT –> to Thalamus + M1 (corticospinal tract)
  • Intermediate Part –> SMALLER OUTPUT –> to Red Nucleus (rubrospinal tract)
  • Medial Part –> IMPORTANT OUTPUT –> to Vestibular Nuclei (vestibulo-spinal tract)
77
Q

What does the flocculo-nodular lobe control?

A
  • Balance
  • Eye Movements

(via vestibular nuclei input)

78
Q

What does the vermis & pars intermedia adjust?

A
  • Ongoing Movement of the Whole Body

(via rubrospinal tract)

79
Q

What do the cerebellar hemispheres help coordinate?

How?

A
  • Planning of Movements
  • Project to the Premotor Cortex
80
Q

What is hypotonus?

A
  • Loss of Muscle Tone
  • Due to reduced spindle discharge?
81
Q

What is ataxia?

A
  • Loss of co-ordination
82
Q

What are deficiencies in movement distance called?

83
Q

What are deficiencies in movement rhythm called?

A
  • Dysrithmia
84
Q

What is asynergia?

A
  • Loss of co-ordination between different muscle groups.
85
Q

What are postural abnormalities?

A
  • Abnormalities in the posture
86
Q

What occurs in ataxia of the trunk & legs?

A
  • Ataxia of Gait
87
Q

What occurs in ataxia of the arms?

A
  • Loss of smooth muscle movements with intention tremor
88
Q

What is intention tremor?

A
  • Loss of smooth movements
89
Q

What is dysdiadochokinesia?

A
  • Force & rhythm deficits
90
Q

What kinds of problems can cerebellar lesions reveal about cerebellar control?

A
  • Hypotonus
  • Ataxia
  • Dysmetria
  • Asynergia
  • Ataxia (e.g. gait)
  • Intention Tremor
  • Dysdiadochokinesia
91
Q

What is the hallmark sign of cerebellar injury/damage?

A
  • Ataxia
  • Decomposition of movement & loss of coordination
92
Q

What occurs in ataxia?

A
  • Squence of muscle contrations (i.e. order of events) –> mixed up –> thus poorly coordinated movements across joints –> giving wobbles within limbs
93
Q

When is ataxia seen?

A
  • Can be voluntary & involuntary movements
94
Q

What is intention tremor?

A
  • Tremor when a patient is attempting to make a movement
95
Q

What is a cerebellar test for intention tremor?

A
  • Point to nose
  • Point away
  • Repeat
96
Q

How will a cerebellum patient present with intention tremor on the intention tremor test?

A
  • Shake trying to bring finger to nose
  • Zig-zag as they try to do it
  • Ability to coordinate muscle are lost (antagonistic pairs not working)
  • Subject uses visual control to track finger –> then adjust

(if they closed their eyes would probably never get it)

97
Q

What is a way of temporarily reinacting a lesion?

A
  • Cool a Deep Nuclei
98
Q

What does a lesion/cooling of the deep cerebellar nuclei do?

A
  • Damp Oscillations
  • Due to disturbances –> giivng wobble & poor coordination between agonist & antagonist
99
Q

From what 2 main places does the cerebellum get input from (generally)?

A
  • Internal Feedback –> Copies of movement plans from motor cortex
  • External Feedback –> regardng sensory consequences of movement
100
Q

Generally, how does the cerebellum use these inputs?

A
  • Adjust Motor Outputs for fine control of movements
  • Maintain calibration of reflexes
101
Q

What is an important function of the cerebellum?

A
  • Motor Learning
  • Modifications of parallel fibres to purkinje cell synapses under the influence of climbing fibre instructions

(i.e. prepare internal model for the future)

102
Q

What happens to patients with cerebellar damage in terms of verb-generation tasks?

Which part of the cerebellum damaged?

A
  • Slower
  • More error-prone
  • Posterior-lateral lobe damage
  • Cannot find the right word (cognition in cerebellar may be associated with action & movement)
103
Q

What happens in dyslexics in regard to the cerebellum?

A
  • Altered cerebellar function in a sequence learning task

(via fMRI found that they have differences in activation between the control group & dyslexic group for new sequences)

(Autistics may have this too)

104
Q

Name all the following basal ganglia.

What plane is this section in?

A
  • Coronal Section
105
Q

What is a coronal section?

A

Imagine a head band and cut down there

106
Q

What is a sagital section?

A

Batman - Harvey Dent (i.e. mid face slice)

107
Q

What are the 2 parts of the substantia nigra.

A
  1. Pars Compacta
  2. Pars Reticulata
108
Q

What are the putamen + caudate nucleus called?
Why?

What separates them sometimes?

A
  • Striatum
  • Putamen –> found below the caudate nucleus
  • Very similar neural structures
  • Considered together as striatum however separated by bridge of tissue –> making it stripy (hence striatum)
109
Q

What 2 places in the basal ganglia does most outflow go through?

A
  • Globus Pallidus (internal segment)
  • Substantia Nigra (Pars Reticulata)
110
Q

Where does information from the basal ganglia usually go?

A
  • Back to cerebral cortex
  • Usually the supplementary motor area (SMA)
111
Q

Describe the direct & indirect basal ganglia circuitry pathway.

112
Q

What does information from the basal ganglia usually have to pass through?

113
Q

Describe the direct route of the basal ganglia generally.

A
  • Direct & Short Pathway through the Basal Ganglia
114
Q

Describe the direct route of the basal ganglia.

A
  • Gluatametergic input into striatum
  • Output cells are inhibitory –> to the Globus Pallidus (internal segment) –> also sending GABA & Substance P to the substantia nigra (pars compacta)
  • It goes to Globus Pallidus (internal segment) + Substantia Nigra (pars reticulata)
  • This causes inhibition of GPi + SNpr
  • This causes disinhibition of the signalling to the thalamus
  • Thalamus is released from GPi + SNpr signalling (due to disinhibition)
  • Thalamus activates SMA

(thalamus ia always firing at a constant rate)

115
Q

Describe the indirect pathway.

A
  • Inhibition of the Globus Pallidus (external segment)
  • GPe –> usually inhibits subthalamic nucleus
  • Thus there is disinhibition of subthalamic nucleus
  • Subthalamic nucleus –> fires more to the globus pallidus (internal segment) –> inhibit thalamus further
  • Thalamus inhibited by GPi
  • Less signal to SMA
116
Q

How do the direct & indirect pathways work together?

A
  • Direct –> Increases Movement
  • Indirect –> Decreases Movement

They are in competition with each other –> need balance of excitability

117
Q

What are some targets of the basal ganglia?

(Thalamocortical circuits)

A

Via thalamus!

  • Frontal Lobe (via thalamus)
  • Anterior Cingulate Cortex
  • Medial Orbital Frontal Cortex (limbic associations –> emotional behavioural loop)s)
  • *Dorsal-Lateral Pre-Frontal Cortex**
  • Lateral Orbital Frontal Cortex
  • Ocular Motor Regions
118
Q

Many other circuits work in parallel to the motor circuit involving basal ganglia, thalamus & cortex.

A

Examples:

  • Oculo-Motor Loop
  • Higher Executive Loops
  • Lateral Orbital Front Loop
  • Behavioural Loop (anterior cingulate gyrus)
119
Q

What are the basal ganglia generally involved in?

A

NOT just motor involvement

Widespread Effect

  • Motor Involvement (e.g. parkinson’s)
  • Cognitivie Impairement
  • Oculomotor Reflex (loop)
120
Q

What sends out dopamine in the basal ganglia?

A
  • Substantia Nigra pars compacta
121
Q

What are the effects of dopamine?

A
  • Effect on Striatum
  • Excitatory –> as it acts on D1 receptors
  • Dopamine excites direct pathway (augment movement)
122
Q

What is the overall effect of dopamine on the direct pathway?

A
  • Direct Pathway --> excitatory upon movement
  • Dopamine –> activates the direct pathway –> thus increases movement
123
Q

How does dopamine influence the indirect pathway?

A
  • Dopamine causes supression when it acts on D2 receptors (for dopamine)
  • It causes inhibition of function of the indirect pathway

Dopamine acts on cells in the striatum that are involved in indirect pathway (part of striatum is involved in direct & other in indirect)

124
Q

What is the overall effect of dopamine?

A
  • Pro-Movement
125
Q

Generally, what does dopamine cause in the direct & indirect pathway?

A
  • Direct Pathway –> INCREASE SIGNALS –> Enhance Movement
  • Indirect Pathway –> DECREASE SIGNALS –> Enhance Movement
126
Q

What is the overall effect of dopamine on the indirect pathway?

A
  • Indirect pathway is inhibitory on movement
  • Dopamine inhibits the indirect pathway –> thus increases movement
127
Q

What happens in Parkinson’s disease?

A
  • Degeneration of Substantia Nigra pars compacta
  • This causes problems with generating movements
  • Loss of dopamine action on direct & indirect pathways
128
Q

Striatum projects to the output structures via…

A
  • Direct Pathways
  • Indirect Pathways
129
Q

What is the effect of dopamine on direct (excitatory) and indirect (inhibitory) pathways?

A
  • Excitatory –> on DIRECT PATHWAYS
  • Inhibitory –> on INDIRECT PATHWAYS
130
Q

What is the overall effect of dopamine?

A
  • Dopamine modulates the striatal outflow so that it increases movement
131
Q

Name the presentations of parkinson’s disease.

A
  1. Tremor at Rest
  2. Slowness of Movements
  3. Rigidity
  4. Postural Instability
132
Q

What are the presentations of ballism & hemiballism?

A
  • Large Amplitude, involuntary limb movements
133
Q

What are the presentations of huntington disease?

A
  • Sudden, brief involuntary twitches
  • Occurs in all parts of the body
  • Voluntary movements –> slowed
134
Q

What does cortical excitation to the striatum do?

A
  1. Flows through the direct & indirect pathways
  2. Excitas ventral-_anterior_ thalamus
  3. Activates SMA

This is the ‘go’ signal for voluntary movements

135
Q

What is a hypokinetic basal ganglia disorder?

Give an example.

A
  • Prevent movement initiation
  • Parkinson’s Disease

(basal ganglia filters out unwanted movements usually)

136
Q

What is a hyperkinetic basal ganglia disorder?

Give an example.

A
  • Stops the basal ganglia from filtering out of unwanted movements like usual
  • Ballism
  • Huntington’s Disease
137
Q

What is the overall function of the basal ganglia?

A
  • Basal ganglia is normally involved in filtering out unwanted movements
138
Q

What is ballism?

A
  • Damage to the subthalamic nucleus
139
Q

What is huntington’s disease?

A
  • Degeneration of striatal cholinergic + GABA-ergic neurones
140
Q

What structures does coordinated voluntary movements depend on?

A
  1. Cerebellum
  2. Basal Ganglia
  3. M1
  4. PMA
  5. Supplementary Motor Area
141
Q

What are SMA & Basal Ganglia important in?

A
  • High level ideas for movement
142
Q

How is the cerebellum involved in movement?

A
  • Assists with calibrations & motor learning
143
Q

What is M1 involved in?

A
  • Closely involved with excecuting the motor plan
144
Q

What does the SMA & premotor cortices respond to in terms of cues to make movements?

A
  • SMA –> responds to INTERNAL CUES
  • Premotor Cortex –> responds to EXTERNAL CUES

Neuroscience (Yeo) (8 decks)

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