Summary Chapters

Question 1

Lesson 8.1

Question 2

Internally Caused Injuries

Answer 2

Overuse (chronic) injuries – these come about through hard training or performing too much or for too long.

• Pressures nowadays to do well in sport are so great that performers get a temptation to do far too much which leads to injuries.
• Performers can suffer stress fractures in bones caused through too much running, as well as tendon and muscle injuries.
• Footballers get knee and ankle injuries due to a lot of twisting and turning.
• Tennis players suffer from ‘tennis elbow’, caused by the forced straightening of the arm during play.
• And so on for different sports.
• Strain is required in the majority of sports, but what is important is that the performer does not overdo it and be ready to cut down on training or even stop, if there is any sign of injury.
• Carrying on, will only make things worse.

Sudden (acute) injury – these are caused instantly by such things as overstretching or twisting or turning quickly.

• They may be caused by tiredness or fatigue.
• Many of these types of injuries happen quite late on in a game or a match. A lack of suitable warm-up can also be a cause, or trying to do something which is either too difficult or which is clearly dangerous.
• It also happens when you are not warmed up well.

Question 3

Externally Caused Injuries

Answer 3

These are caused by factors other than the performers themselves.

1. It could be the equipment used
2. the playing conditions or
3. an opponent.

They can be listed under the following headings:

1. Impact injuries – these are injuries such as cuts, bruises and fractures. Impact can be caused by another player (mainly in team games were contact is inevitable) such as bumping together, falling over another player, etc. Impact can also be made with equipment such as getting hit with a hockey stick, with a ball, soccer boots, a post, etc. The playing surface is also a very common cause of these injuries. Both outdoor and indoor surfaces should be taken into consideration.
2. Foul play – this involves other players, usually opponents. These injuries at times can be very serious such as having bad tackles, pushing over players, etc. So rules are there to prevent as many injuries as possible.
3. Accidents – no matter how many safety precautions are taken, there will always be accidents. They occur in all physical activities, but because some sports are more dangerous than others, the accidents will be more common and more serious, e.g. skiing, bungee jumping, boxing, wrestling
4. Equipment - a simple thing such as a blister can be caused by the equipment. Often injuries are caused by damaged or faulty equipment which is not doing its job properly, though it does not necessarily have to be faulty to cause an injury e.g. running long distances will automatically get you blisters, no matter how specialist the running shoes are.

Question 4

How can you avoid injury?

Answer 4

1. Make sure you are fit for the activity
2. Make sure you develop the right techniques
3. Play at the right level / right age
4. Know the rules of your sport and obey them
5. Make sure you are wearing the right kit
6. Make sure the equipment you use is in good repair
7. Lift and carry equipment with care
8. Watch out for hazards (environment) in the playing area
9. Warm up correctly
10. Cool down correctly

Question 5

Preventing injuries can be summarised in the following points:

Answer 5

1. Preparation – involving training, warmup and physical state of the athlete.
2. Equipment – involving the correctness and conditions of them.
3. Participation – involving fair play and officials.
4. Environment – involving uncontrolled and controlled environment.

Question 6

Lesson 8.2

Answer 6

EMERGENCY ACTION (I)

Question 7

What do we do when someone collapses?

Answer 7

• If someone collapses we must follow the DRABC routine.
• This routine tells us what to do in the right order.
• The aim of DRABC is to keep the person breathing until an ambulance arrives.
• As without oxygen, the brain is damaged within just three to four minutes and dead within ten.

Danger:

1. Check for danger first, such as equipment in the way, electricity, gas, fire or fumes.
2. Your own safety comes first, so make sure you do not put yourself in danger by helping someone else. Call for help immediately.
3. If there is no danger, clear the area around the casualty.

Response:

1. Shake the casualty gently by the shoulders and shout ‘can you hear me?’
2. If the casualty shows a response, he/she is conscious.
3. If the casualty can speak, find out where he/she is in pain. Take action if you can help such as bleeding, broken leg, etc.
4. If there is no response the casualty is unconscious.

Airway:

The tongue can block the airway so:

1. Loosen any tight clothing.
2. Raise the chin and tilt the head back to open the airway fully.
3. Remove any obvious obstruction such as a gum. Make use of a tissue to remove any vomit.

Breathing:

1. Look for the chest rising and falling. Listen for breathing sounds.
2. Feel for breath on your cheek.
3. If the casualty is breathing, place him/her in the recovery position.

Circulation:

1. Check the pulse under the ear or from the wrist.
2. The pulse shows the heart is beating and the blood circulating. So you need to give mouthtomouth ventilation to restore breathing (the kiss of life).
3. If there is no pulse you need to give both cardiac message and mouth to mouth ventilation, to restore circulation and breathing.

All of these things can be done until help arrives generally from an ambulance. But your actions can save someone’s life, so every second counts.

When calling an ambulance be clear to specify what the injury of the casualty is and where he/she stands.

For an ambulance dial 112.

Question 8

Important Point:

Answer 8

1. We must not move an injured sportsperson if we are at all worried about a spinal injury.
2. Signs of this would be:
   
   1. head injuries,
   2. back injuries,
   3. unknown cause of unconsciousness,
   4. casualty cannot move,
   5. casualty doesn’t feel the legs or arms, etc

Question 9

In an emergency we must:

Answer 9

1. assess the situation
2. make everyone safe
3. send for medical help
4. give emergency aid

Question 10

DRABC routine

Answer 10

Page 9

Question 11

Lesson 8.3

Answer 11

EMERGENCY ACTION (II) L

Question 12

Mouth-to-mouth ventilation (MMV)

Answer 12

If a person has stopped breathing use mouth-to-mouth ventilation to get the person to breath again. Here you force air from your lungs into the casualty’s lungs. The oxygen in this air can keep the casualty alive.

The following steps should be taken for mouth-to-mouth ventilation:

1. Clear his/her mouth and throat of any obstruction.
2. Open his/her airway by lifting the jaw and tilting the head well back.
3. Check for breathing with your face close to his/her mouth. Look for chest movement. Listen for sounds of breathing. Feel his/her breathe on your cheek.
4. If he/she is not breathing, pinch the nose. Take a deep breath. Seal your lips around his/her mouth. Blow into his/her mouth and watch the chest rise. Take your mouth away and watch his/her chest fall back.
5. If his/her chest does not rise, check again for an obstruction in the mouth. If he/she is still not breathing, slap him/her firmly on the back to clear the blockage or grab the person from the stomach and squeeze upwards.
6. Check his/her pulse before continuing. If there is no pulse start chest compressions.
7. If he/she has a pulse and his/her chest has risen, continue blowing
   into the mouth. Give breaths every five to six seconds and
   continue until he/she starts to breath again. Then put him/her into
   the recovery position.

Question 13

Cardiac arrest is

Answer 13

1. When your heart stops beating, e.g. during a heart attack.
2. When it stops the circulation and pulse stop too.

Question 14

Cardiac Massage or External Chest Compression

Answer 14

1. A way of squeezing the heart so that blood is forced out of it and round the body.
2. It must be combined with mouth-to-mouth ventilation so that the blood gets oxygen too.

Question 15

A defibrillator

Answer 15

Is a special machine which gets the heart to start beating properly.

Question 16

How to do cardiac massage or cardio pulmonary respiration (CPR)

Answer 16

1. Place the casualty on his/her back. Put the heel of one of your hands on the breastbone, keeping your fingers off the ribs.
2. Cover this hand with the heel of your other hand and interlock your fingers.
3. With your arms straight, press down vertically on the lower half of the breastbone in order to move it 4-5cm and then release the pressure. Complete 30 compressions. The compressions should be regularly and smooth, not jerky and jabbing. Count to get yourself working at the right speed.
4. Move back to the casualty’s head, re-open their airway and give two breaths of mouth-to-mouth ventilation.
5. Continue with thirty compressions followed by two full ventilations, checking for a pulse after the first minute. Then keep checking the pulse every three minutes.
6. As soon as the pulse returns, stop the compressions. Continue with the mouth-to-mouth ventilations until natural breathing has been restored

Question 17

If we are not alone (MMV)

Answer 17

If we are not alone, but have some help available, we need to do one of the following:

1. We can do the MMV and the chest compressions alone for a period of time. This gives the other helper some rest. Then we can change over.
2. We can work both at the same time by having one helper doing the chest compressions and the other doing mouth-to-mouth respiration.

Question 18

For children

Answer 18

1. For children, open the airway and seal your lips around the mouth and nose and breath gently into the lungs at a rate of 20 breaths per minute (whereas for adults 12 breaths per minute).
2. Chest compressions also need to be done more lightly:
   
   • For children, use light pressure with only one hand at a rate of 100 compressions per minute, with 5 compressions to one ventilation.

Question 19

For babies

Answer 19

1. For babies, use the same technique but only puff gently into the lungs at a rate of 20 per minute.
2. If the baby is not breathing slap him/her on the back to remove any obstacles that might be in the throat.
3. Chest compressions also need to be done more lightly:
4. For babies, use only two fingers with very light pressure.

Question 20

The Recovery Position

Answer 20

We always use the recovery position for an unconscious person who is breathing. The following procedure should be tackled when about to place a casualty in the recovery position:

1. With the casualty lying on his back, tilt the head back and chin up to open the airway.
2. Straighten the legs.
3. Move the arm nearest you so that it looks like the arm of a policeman stopping traffic.
4. Bring the other arm across the chest. Arrange so that the casualty’s cheek rests on the back of this hand. Keep your hand on this hand for step v.
5. With your other hand, reach across the casualty’s far leg. Lift it so that the knee bends to a right angle. Then pull it to roll the casualty towards you.
6. Once the casualty is on his side, gently tilt the head back, to keep the airway open. Use his hand under the cheek to hold it like that.

Question 21

Lesson 8.4

Answer 21

BONE AND JOINT INJURIES

Question 22

Fractures: (hard tissue injury)

Answer 22

A facture is a break in a bone. There are two types:

1. a simple (closed) fracture – where the bone breaks but stays under the skin.
2. a compound (open) fracture – where the bone breaks through the skin.

Question 23

Complicated fractures

Answer 23

1. Involve damage also to nerves and muscles.
2. The damage could cause heavy bleeding which could be more serious than the break itself.
3. All fractures are serious and need urgent medical treatment.

Question 24

Stress fractures

Answer 24

1. Are cracks that appear along the length of the bone and are caused by repeated stress applied to the bone over a long period of time.
2. These are also known as calcifications.

Question 25

The following are questions one should ask when checking for fractures

Answer 25

1. Has the snap of the bone been heard or felt?
2. Is there pain where the injury has occurred and is there a lack of movement in the limb?
3. Is the shape and outline of the limb different from normal? You can check against the other limb to see this.
4. Is the limb in an unnatural position? e.g. a knee or foot facing the wrong way.
5. Is there a lot of swelling around the injured area?
6. Can you feel some clear damage to the bone?

If after considering all of these points, you think that there is a chance of
a fracture you must be very careful not to move the injured area but to
immobilize it, i.e. to keep it in a stable position.

Trying to straighten the fracture will only cause more damage.

Use towels, cushions, or folded clothing to support the limb above and below the fracture

Question 26

Dislocation (hard tissue injury)

Answer 26

1. This occurs at a joint, where one bone comes out of its normal position against another.
2. There will be damage to the ligaments around the joint as well. It is usually caused by violent twisting.
3. Dislocations usually occur at the shoulder, elbow, finger, thumb, jaw and ankle joints.
4. It can be very difficult to tell the difference between a dislocation and a fracture so you should treat them the same way.
5. On no account should you ever try to place the bone back to its place.
6. This is an expert’s job.

Question 27

A dislocation can be recognised by the following signs

Answer 27

1. A recent blow or fall
2. Snapping sound of breaking bone or torn ligament
3. Difficulty in moving the limb normally
4. Pain made worse by movement
5. Severe ‘sickening’ pain
6. Tenderness at the site (fractures)
7. Deformity, i.e. the limb has an unusual shape
8. Swelling or bruising
9. Signs of shock

Question 28

Sprain: (soft tissue injury)

Answer 28

1. A sprain happens when we over stretch or tear a ligament.
2. This can be caused by a twist or sudden pull, e.g. a sprained ankle.
3. Some sprains are minor, but in a severe sprain, the ligament is badly torn and the injury looks like a fracture.
4. If in doubt, it should be treated as a fracture.

Question 29

The signs and symptoms of a sprain are the following

Answer 29

1. There is pain and tenderness around the joint.
2. Movement is very limited.
3. Swelling appears around the joint, followed later by bruising.

Question 30

If the sprain is a minor one - R.I.C.E.

Answer 30

When bones, joints, ligaments, muscles or tendons get damaged, the blood vessels around them get damaged too. Blood leaks into the surrounding tissue. This causes swelling, pain and bruising and slows down healing.

So the aim of RICE is to stop the blood leaking.

• Rest:

Rest the injured part as this reduces bleeding and prevents further injury. Stop the activity immediately and support the injury in a comfortable position.

• Ice:

Apply ice or a cold compress as this reduces the blood flow, pain and swelling. Put an ice pack or cold compress on the injury for 15-20 minutes every hour. Do not put ice directly on the skin as this can burn the skin.

• Compression:

Compress the injury as this reduces bleeding and swelling. Wrap a bandage firmly over the injured area. Do not compress too tight as this can stop the blood flow.

• Elevation:

Elevate the injured part as this reduces bleeding and swelling. raise the injury above the level of the heart so that the blood flows towards the heart.

Question 31

Torn knee cartilage

Answer 31

1. The two cartilages act as shock absorbers between the bones of our knee joints.
2. They can be torn when our knee is twisted or pulled in an unusual way. It can be very serious so medical advice is required.

Question 32

The signs and symptoms of knee cartilage problems

Answer 32

1. There is pain on one side of the knee joint.
2. The joint may ‘lock’ and not straighten fully for a time.
3. It may swell later that day or next morning

Question 33

H.A.R.M.

Answer 33

The following are to be avoided when a person is injured:

1. Heat: do not use heat for 48 hours because it increases bleeding.
2. Alcohol: do not drink alcohol because in increases the swelling.
3. Running: do not run because the weight and impact causes further injury.
4. Massage: do not massage for 48 hours because it increases bleeding.

Question 34

Lesson 8.5

Answer 34

MUSCLE AND SKIN DAMAGE

Question 35

Strained or pulled muscles

Answer 35

1. A strain or pull is a tear in a muscle or its tendon, caused by violent overstretching.
2. It can also be caused by a twist or a wrench.
3. They are quite painful and there may be some reduced or weakened movement where the injury occurred.
4. It often happens with hamstrings, groin, calf and thigh muscles, especially if you don’t warm up properly.

Question 36

The signs and symptoms of a strained or pulled muscle are:

Answer 36

1. A sudden sharp pain at the site of the injury.
2. This is followed by swelling, stiffness and sometimes cramp.

Question 37

Treatment for these type of injuries are

Answer 37

1. Follow the RICE routine for minor strains.
2. A casualty with a serious strain must be brought to hospital.

Question 38

Tennis elbow

Answer 38

These are muscle injuries caused by overuse of muscles in the lower arm. Here, the area around the outer bony bump on the elbow is inflamed, tender and painful. This injury can occur in several racket sports such as tennis,
badminton and squash.

Question 39

Treatment for these type of injuries are - Tennis elbow

Answer 39

1. If the injury is very painful, an icepack will help.
2. The elbow must be rested until it recovers, which could take weeks.
3. Physiotherapy will help the treatment, as well as an injection of a steroid into the muscle.

Question 40

Cramp

Answer 40

1. Is an instantaneous contraction of a skeletal muscle that cannot be relaxed.
2. It can last for a few seconds or several minutes. Its precise cause is unknown as muscle cramps can occur during hard physical activity or during complete relaxation, though it often happens when the muscles are tired.
3. Also cramps happen due to dehydration.

Question 41

The signs and symptoms of a cramp are

Answer 41

1. A lack of minerals and salts in the diet.
2. A temporary restriction of blood to the affected muscle.

Cramp does not always stop the performer from carrying on, although
serious cases can.

Question 42

Treatment for cramps are

Answer 42

1. Stretch the affected muscle manually, slowly and gently.
2. Drink plenty of water.
3. When the muscle has relaxed, massage it very gently.

Question 43

Stitch

Answer 43

1. A pain in the side of the abdomen or in the lower chest brought on by physical activity.
2. It is best described as a form of cramp of the diaphragm and restricts deep breathing.
3. It is often caused by jolting movements such as running and eating before participation, or drinking too much before participation.

Question 44

Treatment for stitch

Answer 44

1. Breathe in deeply and out shallowly.
2. Keep bending up and down.
3. Stop exercising for a short while.

Question 45

Winding

Answer 45

1. This is caused by a blow to the abdomen from a ball, elbow or knee.
2. This causes the diaphragm to go into spasm and therefore stop working.
3. This is often referred to as being winded.

Question 46

The signs and symptoms of winding are

Answer 46

1. You can’t breathe in or out

Question 47

Treatment for winding are

Answer 47

1. Loosening of clothing.
2. Sitting in a relaxed position.
3. Taking long breaths out.

Question 48

Cuts

Answer 48

1. Cuts can vary greatly in size and seriousness.
2. The secret of treating a cut is to stop the bleeding and let the blood clot as quickly as possible.

Question 49

Treatment for cuts are

Answer 49

1. Cover the cut with a clean pad or cloth and press down firmly on it to stop the bleeding. Use plastic or rubber gloves if you can.
2. Lie the casualty down and raise the injured part, to reduce blood flow to it.
3. Continue to apply pressure until bleeding stops (this could take several minutes).
4. If blood seeps through the pad, do not remove it, just put another one on top.
5. When bleeding stops, tie the pad firmly.
6. If there is blood pumping out of a cut under pressure, there has been damage to an artery and this must be treated very seriously. Call an ambulance as stitches may be required

Question 50

Bruises

Answer 50

1. These are collections of blood beneath the skin and are very common.
2. The blood vessels have been damaged just like a cut but the skin has not been broken, so the bleeding occurs beneath the skin.

Question 51

The signs and symptoms of bruises are

Answer 51

1. First there is pain and swelling in the bruised area.
2. Then the skin discolours as it goes blue or purple first and then green or yellow.

Question 52

Treatment for bruises are

Answer 52

The RICE routine can be applied here.

1. A bruise should be treated by applying ice. This will reduce the swelling and relieve the pain. The ice needs to be applied quickly. If it is, it will limit the extent of the injury.
2. For serious bruising, compression with a strong bandage will help.

Question 53

Abrasions or Grazes

Answer 53

These occur when skin is scraped off your body, such as in a sliding tackle
on a hard pitch, or a fall on gravel.

Question 54

Treatment for abrasions and grazes are

Answer 54

1. If the wound is dirty clean it gently with warm water
2. If it is bleeding a little, just let the blood clot.
3. Allow the wound to dry naturally if possible. But if there is danger of infection, cover it with a plaster.

Question 55

Lesson 8.6

Answer 55

SOME DANGEROUS CONDITIONS

Question 56

Concussion

Answer 56

1. This is a sudden blow of consciousness and it is often caused by a blow to the head.
2. It does not necessary have to be a hard blow to cause concussion.

Question 57

The signs and symptoms of concussion are

Answer 57

The casualty may:

1. Become unconscious. This could last from seconds to hours (delayed concussion).
2. Feel sick, dizzy or drowsy.
3. Have very relaxed limbs with a weak and irregular pulse.
4. Have slow and shallow breathing.
5. Have large pupils.
6. Get confused, stare and suffer memory loss.
7. Have bleeding from the ears (this indicates a serious injury and must be dealt with as an emergency).

These signs could appear a few hours after the injury and not necessarily immediately.

Question 58

Treatment for concussions are

Answer 58

1. Most importantly is to spot the injury and get help immediately.
2. Place an unconscious casualty in the recovery position.
3. The casualty should be kept under medical observation for at least twenty four hours after the injury (usually in hospital).

Question 59

Shock

Answer 59

Shock is when there is not enough blood circulating round the body

Question 60

Types of shocks

Answer 60

There are two types of shock:
Primary shock: is a feeling of faintness which can come on immediately
after an emotional or traumatic event. This is only a temporary feeling and often passes quite quickly. Calming and reassuring the person will usually be enough to help them to overcome this.
True shock: is a far more serious state. It will come about after a serious injury, such as a very bad cut or fracture. The person affected will be close to collapse and it is very important that they are treated in hospital

Question 61

Shock may be caused through

Answer 61

1. Fluid loss, e.g. from severe bleeding or burns, vomiting, diarrhoea or heavy sweating.
2. Severe pain, when blood is diverted to the painful part.

Question 62

The signs and symptoms of shock are

Answer 62

1. The skin is cold, grey and sweaty. The lips may be blue.
2. The pulse is rapid and weak and breathing rapid and shallow.
3. The casualty feels dizzy, thirsty and may try to vomit.
4. The casualty feels anxious and panicky.

Question 63

Treatment for shock are

Answer 63

1. Get an ambulance.
2. Give the casualty room and air, loosen any tight clothing.
3. Keep the casualty warm.
4. If the casualty is bleeding, do what you can to stop the bleeding.
5. Place the casualty in the recovery position.
6. Reassure the casualty.

Don’t ever give a shock victim anything to drink or eat.
Don’t cover the victim with too many blankets.

Question 64

Hypothermia (Freezing)

Answer 64

1. This is the lowering of the body temperature below 35°C. Your body is too cold to function properly.
2. This usually happens when you have been out in the cold, rain and wind for too long and you are very tired, or even when you are in very cold water.
3. Sailing, canoeing and mountain/hill climbing are a few sports where the individual risks in getting hypothermia.
4. Old people usually suffer from hypothermia much more than younger ones.
5. With hypothermia, the nervous system is affected, muscular rigidity can develop and the heart starts beating irregularly.

Question 65

The signs and symptoms of hypothermia are

Answer 65

1. The casualty starts to act strangely, such as becoming aggressive, dreamy or apathetic.
2. The casualty’s skin becomes cold and pale and breathing is slow.
3. The casualty is weak and wants to lie down and rest.
4. The casualty may collapse, become unconscious and die if not treated immediately

Question 66

Treatment for hypothermia

Answer 66

1. Try to get casualty indoors or in some sheltered area. Replace damp clothes with warm dry ones and let the casualty rest.
2. A warm bath for a conscious casualty is suggested if possible.
3. Give hot sweet drinks to casualty if available. Avoid alcohol.
4. Lie the casualty down on blankets or other insulation.

Question 67

Prevention for hypothermia

Answer 67

1. Careful planning and proper training, especially if particular sports are practised.
2. Having equipment for emergencies, including spare clothes, survival bag, high energy food and drinks.
3. Dressing well to beat the cold, with layers of clothes and a wind and waterproof outer layer.

Question 68

Hyperthermia (Overheating)

Answer 68

This is when your body temperature has risen above 39°C. There are several reasons to this:

1. Heat Exhaustion: this develops during activity in hot conditions. It is caused by dehydration, that is loss of fluid and salt from the body due to excessive sweating. Marathon runners and cyclists have been known to suffer from this.

Question 69

The signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are

Answer 69

1. The skin is pale, grey, damp and sweaty.
2. The pulse is week and rapid.
3. Weak or slow breathing.
4. The casualty may feel week and dizzy and can suffer from cramps and headaches.

Question 70

Treatment for hyperthermia

Answer 70

1. Lay the casualty in a cool place if possible.
2. Raise and support his/her legs.
3. Make sure the casualty drinks a lot of sips of water. Salty products will help.

Question 71

Dehydration

Answer 71

Similar to heat exhaustion but less dangerous.

The signs and symptoms of dehydration are:

• The casualty feels week and dizzy.

Treatment for dehydration:

• Give plenty of water to drink.

Question 72

Heat Stroke

Answer 72

1. This is when your body loses its ability to sweat and your temperature rises out of control.
2. It normally happens after long and hard training on hot and humid days.

Question 73

The signs and symptoms of heat stroke are

Answer 73

1. The casualty suddenly falls into confusion and restlessness.
2. The casualty is pale and blushing with a rapid strong pulse and dry skin.
3. The casualty may vomit and shake uncontrollably.
4. The casualty may become unconscious.

Question 74

Treatment for heat stroke

Answer 74

1. Move the casualty in a cool place.
2. Remove outer clothing and cool his/her body with wet towels.
3. Give the casualty sips of water every so often

Question 75

Prevention for heat exhaustion and heat stroke

Answer 75

1. Careful planning and proper training.
2. Taking plenty of fluid before and after training.
3. Dressing to beat the heat with ventilation in headgear and light, quick dry clothing.

Sportspersons have to be ready to face all types of weather conditions and must be ready prepared for this.

Question 76

Lesson 9.1

Answer 76

LEISURE, RECREATION AND SPORT

Question 77

Leisure Time

Answer 77

• If we listed all of the things we did during any one day we would end up with a very long list, which included many different activities.
• Our lists would be different but some activities, for example sleeping, would be on everybody’s list.
• If we take out of our day the time used up for bodily needs, our duties and for work and work related activities, we are left with free time for leisure activities.
• This is the time in which we have the greatest choice about what we do.
• During our leisure time we can take part in sport and physical recreation.
• What you chose to do will depend on your culture and upbringing, your social class and the facilities available.
• So leisure time is the time when you are free to do what you choose.
• To many people, this is the time they have after work or after school. Many people work regular hours and this sets the pattern for their lives.
• For people who work regular hours, weekends, evenings and holidays are the time for leisure.
• Working long hours or overtime will reduce our leisure time.
• People on night shifts may have to take their leisure time when other people are working.
• Our duties take time. In the last fifty years there has been a great increase in the time people have available for leisure.
• Leisure will continue to grow for almost all of us.
• There are many reasons for this:
• Working careers have got shorter as we continue our education longer and retire earlier.

1. We live longer in retirement.
2. Paid holidays have increased.
3. Working hours have got shorter.
4. Housework takes less time.
5. Unemployment and part time work have increased.

We all have leisure time. What we do during this time depends on what matters to us and what our interests are. We may decide to take part in sport or physical recreation. Our decisions will depend on what we think the benefits are.

Question 78

Recreation

Answer 78

• This can mean relaxing or amusing yourself, but the term is also commonly used to mean doing something which is active and healthy.
• There is no single definition which sums it up, but it is something which can be done during your leisure time.
• The Sports Council has referred to recreation as ‘the purposeful use of leisure time’.
• Recreation is a form of play.
• During recreation you can forget about your problems.
• You feel refreshed and more able to face life’s pressures and stresses.

Question 79

Physical recreation:

Answer 79

• This is where you choose a physical activity. Examples of physical recreation could be; cycling, rollerblading, swimming, football, bowling, etc.
• There are many good reasons for taking up a physical activity:
  
  • Health: You might take up jogging or swimming for health reasons, such as avoiding illnesses, relieves stress, improve your shape and you look and feel better.
  • Activity itself: You do an activity because you just love doing it.
  • Social reasons: Taking up a physical activity often means joining a club or team. This gives you the chance to meet new people and make new friends.

Question 80

Sport

Answer 80

• A recreational activity can become a sport when:
  
  • It is institutionalised and competitive. This means there are organised events with rules and regulations, and you set out to win.
  • It requires energetic physical exertion and/or the use of complex skills (with regular training).
  • The player is motivated by a mixture of satisfaction and extrinsic
  • factors such as a prize.
  • So physical recreation can turn into a sport with regular and serious training.

Question 81

Lesson 9.2

Answer 81

FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICIPATION

Question 82

Factors affecting participation

Answer 82

There are a number of factors that in one way or another affect our sporting and physical recreation:

1. Age: As people get older, they generally take part less in sport and physical recreation. Though, this depends on the activity too. E.g. for gymnastics you need to be young and flexible but for golf, walking or swimming, it applies for all ages.
2. Sex: In general males take part in physical recreation and sport at all ages more than females do, for various reasons.
3. Education:Your education has a big effect on your attitude towards sport and physical recreation. If your school is keen on sport you probably play a lot already. If you enjoy it at school then it is likely that you will continue after.
4. Tradition and culture: Some countries have a strong tradition for a particular sport such as cricket in the West Indies and baseball in America. Several sports were for men only many years ago and women had to fight their way in. So these also affect participation.
5. Peer-group pressure: What our friends do in their leisure time will usually affect us. Friends often have similar interests. We all need friends and if our friends are not interested in sport, we may find ourselves dropping out of sport too. On the other hand, if our friends take part in sport and enjoy it we might be willing to give it a try. In school, peer pressure can be very strong.
6. Family: Our family is a very important influence on us. If our parents play sport regularly then we will be brought up in a sporting atmosphere. Sporting parents and older brothers and sisters provide us with role models to follow. Sometimes children with famous sporting parents will follow in their footsteps. This is not easy to do and many will decide to do something completely different. Unfortunately family influences can also be negative if there is little interest or encouragement to do sport.
7. Financial situation: Playing sport outside school time means we will have to pay even more for equipment, the hiring of facilities and the costs of joining a club or centre. We are affected by our parents’ ability to pay for our sport. If sports opportunities at school are reduced, children will miss out if their parents cannot afford the fees at sports centres and clubs. We must also put in mind that some sports and physical recreational activities are expensive to practice.
8. Access: You may not have access to a particular sport because the nearest facilities are miles away from home. Luckily enough in Malta this issue is not that much of a problem as everywhere is so close to us being a small island. But if transport is not available this could be a problem too.
9. Disability: A disability may restrict your activities. But nowadays, many sports have changed their rules to suit disabled people. Modern sports facilities have wheelchair ramps, lifts and special changing rooms for disabled people.
10. Environment and climate: Where we live affects some of the sports we can take part in. Obviously if we live near the sea, there will be greater opportunities to learn and practice water sports. Country areas might provide opportunities for outdoor activities, but may be a long way from leisure centres and swimming pools. Inner city areas will be short of open space but are more likely to have many indoor facilities within travelling distance. Weather conditions also affect sport.
11. The media: play an important role in making a sport popular. People get interested in starting a particular sport at an early age through watching games and competitions on television. Newspapers, magazines, videos and professional athletes are a means of making a particular sport interesting to others.
12. Politics: The extent to which people take part in sport also depends on their politicians. The government does get involved in sport, for example to build facilities, to bring a sense of pride to the country and to cut down on health problems and crime situations.

Question 83

Lesson 9.3

Answer 83

FACILITIES

Question 84

Faciities

Answer 84

Sports facilities vary considerably but fall into two main categories:

Outdoor facilities: include sports pitches, water sports areas, outdoor pursuit areas and any natural features which might be used for sporting events such as cross-country courses. Many people use outdoor areas for more leisure-based activities such as walking, cycling, mountain bike riding, camping, etc. These are very easy and comparatively cheap to do which is one of the main attractions. Apart from outdoor sports stadiums, it is not easy to get spectators to many outdoor events, often due to the uncertainty of the weather.

Indoor facilities: are usually specifically built for certain sports, such as swimming pools, fitness gyms, etc. or built to be flexible to allow a variety of sports to be practised such as volleyball and badminton inside a gym. The main difference between indoor and outdoor facilities is that there is some choice of where you could locate indoor ones. However before this is done there are many factors to be considered:

1. population and expected use
2. access
3. parking
4. cost
5. natural features
6. demand
7. competition and rival facilities
8. flexibility and usefulness
9. dual use

Question 85

Providers of facilities

Answer 85

Providers of facilities fall into two distinct categories; the private

sector and the public sector.

1. Private sector: This covers any type of facility which is owned and run by individuals or firms or companies. They have to be run as business because the main aim of owning or running one of these facilities would be to make money. This type of facility includes: health clubs, holiday camps, riding schools and hotels with sports facilities such as pools, fitness suites and swimming pools.
2. Public sector: These facilities are owned and run by local authorities or councils. They do not run a private membership scheme. People still have to pay to use them (though not always) but anyone can do so. These include places such as leisure centres, sports halls, swimming pools, sports pitches, schools and town halls. All of these are financed from the taxes paid by local people, which are meant to provide amenities in their area. Some of the money goes on road maintenance, street lighting, etc. but some also goes towards providing facilities for anyone to use.

Question 86

Lesson 9.4

Answer 86

SPORT FOR ALL?

Question 87

The Sports Council

Answer 87

The sports council is an independent body which was set up in 1972 by a
Royal Charter. It has four specific aims:

1. To increase participation in sport and physical recreation.
2. To increase the quality and quantity of sports facilities.
3. To raise standards of performance.
4. To provide information for and about sport.

Question 88

Participation

Answer 88

Surveys have shown that a high percentage of people do
not practice any sport. For this reason the Council aims to increase
participation by:

1. Awarding regional participation grants: to help local organisations
2. get people involved.
3. Running campaigns: to provide information about sports and encourage non-participants to take part.
4. Funding development staff: to help the governing bodies for different sports.
5. Organizing programs: to promote sport through other agencies.

Question 89

Facilities

Answer 89

As well as trying to assist in the building of new facilities, the Council also tries to make better use of existing facilities. Its plan of action includes:

1. Encouraging new and improved facilities by giving advice and some financial assistance.
2. Researching and preparing efficient and economical standard designs for sports buildings and systems.
3. Designing, building and testing innovative facilities and systems, including artificial playing surfaces and the use of computers.
4. Identifying good practice of design, facilities or management to be used elsewhere.
5. Funding research and feasibility studies into sports requirements.

Question 90

Standards of Performance

Answer 90

Standards of Performance: To try and ensure that there is as much sporting success as possible, especially at international level, the Council:

1. Runs live centres of excellence.
2. Offers support often financially to governing bodies of sport for excellence programs, improving standards, coaching, international competition, facilities and equipment.
3. Finances the National Coaching Foundation to provide trained coaches.
4. Finds and encourages sponsors for top class sport.
5. Finances and runs the campaign against drug abuse in sport.

Question 91

Information

Answer 91

Information: The Council is the main provider of information and data about sport and it achieves this:

1. Through a national information centre.
2. By briefing journalists, politicians, central and regional government, students and private organisations.
3. By researching and publishing data on all subjects to do with sport.

By running conferences and exhibitions to do with sport.

Question 92

Lesson 9.5

Answer 92

PE AND SPORT IN SCHOOL

Question 93

PE

Answer 93

In recent years, there have been a number of changes in education which have had an effect on PE in school. PE is a foundation subject in the National Curriculum. Targets have been set for each age group. The sports taught are chosen by the PE department from different categories. There are checks to make sure pupils achieve their targets. PE teachers decide on the best teaching methods. This has given PE equal status with other foundation subjects.

Unfortunately, due to pressure to fit many subjects in schools, the time given to PE has been cut down in several schools, but everyone from the age of five to sixteen must take PE at school as part of the National Curriculum. Pupils are taught from a range of physical activities that include team games, athletics, gymnastics, swimming and dance. Those interested in taking PE to a further level, can opt to choose it for their Olevel exam.

Question 94

The importance of PE and sport in schools

Answer 94

The importance of PE and sport in schools:

1. They help you learn about yourself and your abilities.
2. They help to develop teamwork and a sense of fair play.
3. They help you develop a fit and healthy body.
4. They help you develop self-confidence.
5. They give you the chance to enjoy yourself.
6. If you get into the habit of regular exercise at school, you are more likely to adopt a healthy lifestyle later.
7. They might even lead to a career for you.

.

Question 95

There are three major factors which influence whether we take part in sport after we leave school.

Answer 95

Skills: PE teachers teach all pupils the basic skills of a variety of different activities. During our years at school, we develop these skills so that we can take part confidently in the activities. Teachers may also improve our abilities through coaching and training during and after school practices. Pupils may also be encouraged to join sports clubs or centres of excellence.

Health: PE teachers explain the value of regular exercise for health and fitness. They go through the important principles involved in training for different sports, in both theory and practice. We learn safe practices for all activities together with advice for avoiding and dealing with injuries.

Attitude: PE teachers try to develop in their pupils a positive attitude towards an active lifestyle. They explain the advantages of life long involvement in physical recreation. The attitude and experience of the PE staff is all important as PE teachers are important role models for pupils.

Question 96

What physical activities can a school offer?

Answer 96

This depends on a number of factors:

1. the expertise available. Schools can’t offer an activity if there is no-one to teach it;
2. the attitude of the teachers. If a teacher is really keen on a particular sport, then this can make a big difference to the school;
3. the facilities available. Schools don’t always have the money or space for good facilities

Question 97

School and community links

Answer 97

Even if the school PE program is very good, the school-community link is vital in helping young people continue with physical recreation after leaving school. Pupils need to be introduced to the sports clubs, activity groups and leisure centres in their local community before they leave school. It also helps if the community uses school facilities regularly.

To help bridge the school-community gap, schools could:

1. bring club members, centre managers and others involved in community sport into schools;
2. arrange for pupils to visit clubs, centres and other facilities in the area;
3. explain how to find out about other sports not taught at school.

To help bridge the school-community gap, clubs and centres could:

1. run special introductory courses for young people at school;
2. ensure the clubs and centres are welcoming to young people;
3. providing coaching and training for young people;
4. help young people with the costs.

The links between schools and local clubs have several benefits such as:

1. you may get the chance to play a sport for which your school does not have the facilities or does not promote;
2. you get the chance to play more sport outside school hours;
3. clubs can provide qualified coaching so that you reach a higher standard in your sport.

It is very important that a pupil leaves school with:

1. Basic sports skills.
2. A wide experience of different sports and activities.
3. A good understanding of the link between health and exercise.
4. A positive attitude towards physical recreation.
5. Knowledge of local sporting opportunities.

The following is a quote taken from Tessa Sanderson who was an Olympic Javelin thrower.

“I’d never have won my gold medal without first being interested in sport through PE at school. It’s obvious that school PE is the only way we can ensure that all children learn the basics, so they can develop in their own way and in their chosen activity later. The road to gold begins at school.” Tessa Sanderson

Question 98

It is very important that a pupil leaves school with

Question 99

Lesson 9.6

Answer 99

TOWARDS EXCELLENCE

Question 100

What does one need to become a champion?

Answer 100

A person needs talent, hard work and dedication to start of with. But this is not enough. One also needs:

1. top coaching;
2. top facilities
3. financial help;
4. help from sports science and sports medicine.

A combination of the above mentioned will make the person more professional in his/her sport and a better chance towards excellence.

The Sports Councils and other bodies are working to improve support for athletes in all these areas.

To improve all this, courses for coaches are organised at all levels from beginners to advanced in all sports. Scouts were introduced to point out any promising athletes especially from a very young age.

PE teachers in schools are also assigned to promote any young talents to clubs and teams.

Funding:

Training and competing can cost a fortune. Some athletes manage to get sponsorship from business. But many have to work for a living and fund themselves especially in Malta where the amount of money funded in sports is very limited.

Sports science and sports medicine:

For a top class athlete, a change in training method, diet or attitude can make all the difference between winning and losing. At the same time, an injury can mean the end of the athlete’s career. So it is here that both sports science and sports medicine come in.

“Where the willingness is great, the difficulties cannot be great.”~ Machiavelli ~

Question 101

Lesson 9.7

Answer 101

SPORT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Question 102

Why does the government promote sports for all?

Answer 102

To cut down the nation’s health bill. Regular exercise means better health and less demand for medical care.

1. To cut crime and vandalism. Sport provides an outlet for energy.
2. To unite different cultural groups within a nation. Sport is something everyone can share.
3. To make money. (see topic 14.4)

Why does the government promote excellence?

1. To give the nation something to be proud of. When an athlete wins a medal or a country team wins a trophy, the whole country feels proud of them.
2. To raise the nation’s status in the outside world. This in turn will help trade and tourism.
3. To prove that its political system is better than that of other countries.

Sport in different countries:

Different countries have different traditional sports as mentioned in a previous topic. So countries do promote certain sports more than others even though all sports should be given importance. In Malta for example, water polo, snooker, bowling and shooting are well known sports that generally we do well in. In third world countries, the lack of facilities in sports constraints certain sports not to be practised and played. Since money is spent on areas such as education, health and housing. Sports such as long distance running is well known in these countries as not too many facilities are required. That is why athletes coming from these countries normally do very well.

It’s a big honour for athletes to make it into national teams for whatever the sport may be. It’s a lifetime achievement for any athlete to be able to participate in the highest levels and even more if the athlete manages to be successful.

Question 103

Lesson 10.1

Answer 103

ORGANISATIONS

Question 104

Organisations

Answer 104

National Governing Bodies: The national governing bodies of sport:

1. are voluntary organisations with democratic constitutions;
2. have members from clubs elected to make decisions;
3. use mainly unpaid volunteers;
4. have full time paid officials to run the body;
5. are independent of the Government;
6. are usually members of the CCPR.

What do national governing bodies do? The national governing bodies:

1. run the sport smoothly;
2. promote development of the sport;
3. organise competitions and events;
4. select teams at all levels;
5. arrange coaching and training;
6. organise award schemes;
7. enforce rules and laws;
8. see that they meet the rules of their international federation;
9. negotiate with television and sponsoring companies.

Who pays for the national governing bodies? The national governing bodies are paid for by:

1. members’ subscriptions;
2. companies (through sponsorship and television rights);
3. profits from spectator events;
4. partnership with central government and local authorities.

KMS (Kunsil Malti ghall-iSport):

1. organises different sporting activities throughout the year
2. shows awareness with different information on sporting activities

MOC (Malta Olympic Committee):

1. works hand in hand with the IOC on all sports for the Olympic Games

The International Olympic Committee (IOC):

1. is an independent club of non-elected members;
2. allows its members themselves to elect new members.

The 5 rings represent the 5 continents:

1. Africa
2. America
3. Europe
4. Asia
5. Australia

Question 105

What does the International Olympic Committee do?

Answer 105

The IOC:

is in complete control of everything to do with the Olympic Games; in other words:

1. to select the cities where the games will be held;
2. to decide which sports will be included;
3. to work with the host city and other bodies to plan the games;
4. to lead the fight against doping in sport.

works through National Olympic Committees. They are found in all countries competing in the Olympics.

The aims of the IOC are:

1. to promote the physical and moral side of sport;
2. to educate young people, through sport in order to encourage better
3. understanding and friendship and build a more peaceful world;
4. to spread the Olympic principles throughout the world, in order to create international good will;
5. to bring sportspeople together every four years at the Olympic

Question 106

The aims of the IOC are?

Answer 106

1. to promote the physical and moral side of sport;
2. to educate young people, through sport in order to encourage better
3. understanding and friendship and build a more peaceful world;
4. to spread the Olympic principles throughout the world, in order to create international good will;
5. to bring sportspeople together every four years at the Olympic Games.

The IOC is paid for by companies (for television rights) and companies (for being official sponsors of the games).

Question 107

Lesson 10.2

Answer 107

INSIDE A SPORT

Question 108

The local clubs

Answer 108

The job of any local club in any sport is:

1. to provide facilities
2. to organise competitions
3. to promote the sport and encourage facilities

A successful club can act as a focus for the community and give it a strong sense of pride.

Inside a club:

All clubs have much the same structure, no matter what size they are or what the sport is. Everyone who joins a club is a member.

Question 109

How is a sports club organised and financed?

Answer 109

Sports clubs exist because enthusiastic people have got together in the past to enjoy their sport together. However, enthusiasm is not enough to keep a club going. To be successful, a club needs:

Members

1. A Committee
2. A Constitution
3. Facilities
4. Finance

Members:

Members should be:

1. enthusiastic about their sport;
2. happy to take part with others;
3. willing to pay their share of the costs;
4. able to accept club rules;

available to play, organise, coach or be officials at competitions.

Committee members:

Committee members should be:

1. willing to take on jobs;
2. ready to work on a committee;
3. able to make decisions for the club;
4. elected by the members at the Annual General Meeting (AGM).

There are three essential jobs:

1. Chairperson: - controls committee meetings and acts as the club’s representative;
2. Secretary: - deals with the day-to-day business and arranges meetings;
3. Treasurer: - deals with all the finances.

Constitution:

This sets out the rules of the club which explains:

1. how you become a member;
2. how people are elected to jobs;
3. how fees can be charged;
4. what happens if members break the rules;
5. how the club can be changed.

Facilities:

1. these are needed for playing, training, meetings and social events;
2. the needs of the club will depend on the type of activity and size of the club;
3. they might be owned or hired.

Finance:

A club will need to pay for:

1. hire or upkeep of facilities;
2. team clothing and equipment;
3. training and competition costs;
4. office expenses;

It can raise money through:

1. fees and subscriptions;
2. fund raising;
3. grants and sponsorship.

Question 110

Lesson 10.3

Answer 110

FINANCE IN SPORT

Question 111

How important is spending on sport?

Answer 111

1. Today, sport and physical recreation are an important part of life.
2. Sport is valuable to society for economic reasons such as providing jobs, paying taxation and attracts people’s spending.

Question 112

Why does sport need money?

Answer 112

• We all need clothing, equipment, facilities and opportunities in order to take part in sport.
• We might also need teaching, training, coaching and competition.
• When we are at school, many of these things are provided without costs.
• As adults we will have to pay for them.
• Professional sportspeople expect to be able to pay their living, training and competition expenses.
• In addition they will expect payment and rewards for performing.
• Clubs and governing bodies need to pay for running costs, facilities, events, competitions and development projects and local authorities need to provide the leisure facilities for the community.

Question 113

Where does money for sport come from?

Answer 113

• Money comes from three different sectors of society. In the same way,
• facilities are provided by the three different sectors:
  
  1. in the public sector, the government and local authorities provide a service to the community;
  2. in the private sector, companies work for profit;
  3. in the voluntary sector, clubs and governing bodies provide sporting opportunities for their members.

Public Sector:

Money comes in from:

1. the government;
2. council tax;
3. business rates;
4. grants from the national lottery and sports councils;
5. partnership with business;
6. charges for sports facilities.

Money goes out for:

1. education facilities, equipment, staff for schools, youth clubs and adult education;
2. local sports facilities such as pools, sports centres and playing fields;
3. grants to local sports clubs or groups.

Private Sector:

Money comes in from:

1. profit from running business;
2. spectators (paying to watch);
3. merchandising.

Money goes out for:

1. direct sponsorship of individuals, teams and governing bodies;
2. payment for television rights;
3. operating sports facilities.

Voluntary Sector:

Money comes in from:

1. grants from central government;
2. local authority;
3. sports councils
4. governing bodies;
5. charitable trusts;
6. companies;
7. subscriptions;
8. fund raising.

Money goes out for:

1. basic running costs;
2. development expenses.

Question 114

Lesson 10.4

Answer 114

INTERNATIONAL SPORT

International sports brings people of all races from all over the world
together, regardless of their differences whether it is politics, religion,
etc.

Question 115

The benefits of international sport?

Answer 115

It gives players and supporters from different countries the chance
to meet and develop friendship.

1. It unites people from different races, religions, cultures and classes in a shared interest.
2. It gives the world’s top athletes the chance to compete against each other. This encourages excellence.
3. It spreads interest in sport and encourages more people to play.

Question 116

Hosting international events

Answer 116

• The host is the city or country staging the events.
• The venue is the stadium where an event is held.
• The Olympics are hosted by cities such as Sydney in 2000.
• But many events are hosted by countries and spread around several centres.
• Example, England hosted Euro 1996 (football) and the venues where in Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield.

Question 117

Some advantages of playing host?

Answer 117

Countries and cities often compete fiercely for the chance to host an
international sporting event. The reason to this being:

• For prestige. It is considered an honour to host the Olympics or any other major competition such as the world cup.
• If the event is a success, the host city gains prestige.
• This can pay off in all kinds of ways, including an increase in trade and tourism.
• It unites the country and gives a sense of pride.
• It gives a boost to sports facilities and other facilities.
• Cities build or improve their facilities to host events.
• The local people can enjoy these long after the events are over.
• The event may make a profit.
• Sales of radio and TV rights, tickets and merchandise can bring in a lot of money. Local shops, restaurants, hotels, taxis and other services will also benefit.

Question 118

Some disadvantages of playing host

Answer 118

• If it runs into problems in organising an event, the country or city may lose money.
• An event that attracts hooligans puts a big strain on the police.
• They may have to patrol trains and airports as well as venues.
• A large number of visitors means extra strain on hotels, transport, water supplies and so on. If these can’t cope, there will be problems.
• Big events are security risks.
• They are watched on TV by millions of people, so terrorists and other groups may use them to air their cause.
• They may be disrupted by bomb threats, strikes and riots.
• If an event does not go well the host image suffers.
• The host will have difficulty attracting other events.

Question 119

International sport and politics:

Answer 119

Sport can promote peace and understanding. But where countries are
already enemies, they may use sport as a form of ‘cold war’.

1. A country may decide to boycott an event for political reasons.
2. It may use its top athletes to prove it is more powerful than its enemy, or that its political system is superior.

Question 120

International sport and money

Answer 120

It can be widely expensive to stage an international event. This means:

1. poor countries just can’t afford it;
2. even the rich countries can’t afford major events without sponsorship and the sale of broadcast rights

Question 121

Lesson 10.5

Answer 121

TROUBLE AT THE GAMES

Question 122

History

Answer 122

The Olympic Games:

• The earliest recorded Olympic Games took place in 776BC in the stadium of Olympia, which is where the Olympics got their name.
• They were held in honour of the God Zeus. Even that long ago, the stadium in which the games took place was quite impressive as there was enough room for 40,000 spectators.
• These Games were held every four years and all hostilities and wars stopped while the games took place.
• Typical events at that time were wrestling, boxing, running, discus, javelin, long jump and chariot racing.
• It is interesting to note that nearly all of those events still take place today.
• The Games carried on in this way for many years until the reign of Emperor Theodosius in 394AD.
• He taught the Games had lost their religious meaning and that the performers only took part for the riches of winning, so he stopped the Games.
• The Olympics were not held again before 1896 when they were re-launched in Athens, Greece.
• Many traditions were established based on the old Games. Before each Olympics, a torch is lit and this torch is carried by a relay of runners to the host city’s stadium to light a flame which then burns throughout the Games.
• Thirteen nations entered the Games of 1896 and the total number of athletes was 285.
• They were all men as women were not allowed to enter.

Question 123

The Modern Olympics

Answer 123

• The Olympic Games which had taken place since 1896 are referred to as the modern Olympics.
• They were started largely due to the efforts and determination of one man; Baron Pierre de Coubertin who was a French educationalist.
• He believed that the Olympic movement which he had founded would promote world peace and harmony.
• One of his famous quotes is displayed on the scoreboard at the opening of each Olympic Games as it was what he based his ideas on.

Question 124

What is the Olympic motto?

Answer 124

The Olympic motto is made up of three Latin words:

Citius - Altius - Fortius.

These words mean Faster - Higher -Stronger.

• It was the Dominican priest Henri Didon who first expressed the words in the opening ceremony of a school sports event in 1881.
• Pierre de Coubertin, who was present that day, adopted them as the Olympic motto.
• It expresses the aspirations of the Olympic Movement not only in its athletic and technical sense but also from a moral and educational perspective.

Question 125

The recent games and some hitches

Answer 125

• The Olympic Games were the first major international sporting event and they are still the most important and successful of all of the events which take place.
• However things have not always run smoothly and nearly all of the recent ones have been affected by problems of one sort or another.
• The following is a brief description of the major events which have affected recent Games.

Question 126

The recent games and some hitches - 1936 (Berlin)

Answer 126

• By this year, Hitler and the Nazis had risen in power. Hitler used these games to show off Nazi power and to try to prove his theory that the world’s blonde, blued-eyed, Northern races (the Aryan races) were superior.
• But one of the main reasons why this failed was due to the success of a black American athlete called Jessie Owens.
• He ended up winning four gold medals in the track and field events, much to Hitler’s obvious disapproval.
• The success of the many black athletes in the American team was a great embarrassment for Hitler and stopped him achieving what he had set out to do.

Question 127

The recent games and some hitches - 1956 (Melbourne):

Answer 127

• Just weeks before these Games, Britain and France invaded Egypt in a conflict over the Suez Canal. Egypt, Iran and Lebanon withdrew from the Games in protest.
• China also withdrew because Taiwan had entered a team.
• Spain, Holland and Switzerland withdrew because the Soviet Union had invaded Hungary.

Question 128

The recent games and some hitches - 1968 (Mexico City)

Answer 128

• One of the main controversies about these Games was that they were awarded to Mexico City in the first place.
• This was because it is situated as a very high altitude and this helps the performance of athletes who train in these conditions. It also assists athletes in the shorter, more explosive events.
• There was genuine concern for performers in longer events in case the rarefied atmosphere caused them difficulties.
• The cost of staging the event was also criticized as Mexico was a very poor country with poor housing and food shortages.
• A vast amount of money was spent on just staging the Games.
• A couple of black American winners gave a black salute during the medal ceremony by raising a black glove fist.
• They were sent home for doing this.

Question 129

The recent games and some hitches - 1972 (Munich)

Answer 129

• There was another Black Power protest by two Americans during a medal ceremony in the Munich Games when they failed to stand to attention, but these games were completely dominated by a terrorist attack on some of the athletes.

Question 130

The recent games and some hitches - 1976 (Montreal)

Answer 130

1. A rugby team from New Zealand had toured South Africa and thereby had upset most of the other African nations.
2. The African nations threatened to boycott the Games unless the New Zealand team was banned.
3. New Zealand took part and the African nations stayed away, a total of thirty nations altogether did not go.
4. The financial costs of these Games was very high due to security purposes and the city of Montreal continued to pay off the debt of staging the Games for many years

Question 131

The recent games and some hitches - 1980 (Moscow)

Answer 131

1. The choice of Moscow for these Games had been quite controversial because the Soviet Union did not have a very good record on human rights.
2. However, they were one of the most successful competing countries in the history of the Olympics and had never staged it before.
3. To make matters worse, the Soviet Union invaded the neighbouring country of Afghanistan in late 1979. In protest, West Germany, Kenya, Japan, Canada and America boycotted the Moscow Game

Question 132

The recent games and some hitches - 1984 (Los Angeles)

Answer 132

• The International Olympic Committee could not avoid America staging the Olympics immediately after it had boycotted the Moscow Games.
• There was a great fear that the Soviet Union would retaliate against the USA, and it did.
• The Soviet Union and fourteen other nations boycotted the Games.
• The whole event was sponsored by large international companies and for the first time the Games ran at a large profit.

Question 133

The recent games and some hitches - 1988 (Seoul)

Answer 133

• Seoul is in South Korea and there had been a longstanding dispute between them and the neighbouring country of North Korea.
• There had been a war between the two countries in 1952 and the situation in 1988 was not much better.
• The IOC was criticized for awarding them the Games and there was a great amount of tension, right up until the start, that the facilities would not be ready and that North Korea would interfere.
• The North Koreans had already demanded that they be allowed to stage some of the events.
• In the end there was very little disruption and the Games were quite successful.
• Here was another boycott by five other countries including North Korea and Cuba.
• It is likely that more countries would have boycotted the Games but the IOC had introduced a rule that if a country boycotted the Games all their officials would be excluded and not allowed to take part in decision-making.
• This clearly deterred many. Sadly the main controversy at these Games involved positive drug tests.
• In all, ten athletes were banned after testing positive for performance enhancing drugs.

Question 134

The recent games and some hitches - 1992 (Barcelona)

Answer 134

• These were successful Games. No-one boycotted them.
• They continued the trend towards commercialisation.
• They made a small profit. South Africa sent a team for the first time after 30 years.
• East and West Germany combined to form a single team for the first time since 1964.
• The total number of official sports was increased to 25.
• There were over 12,000 athletes and officials involved in the Games.
• There was still some drug controversy in these Games too. Total number of 173 countries took part

Question 135

Other international events

Answer 135

• In many ways, most other major international events are based on the success of the Olympics.
• There are several other major Games which take place throughout the world such as the Commonwealth Games which are staged every four years following each Olympics by two years, world championships which are held every four years in football, European championships which also have the same format.
• These follow each world cup by two years, Wimbledon tennis tournament which is held every year and many, many more for each type of sport.

Question 136

Lesson 11.1

Answer 136

AMATEUR OR PROFESSIONAL

Question 137

Definition:

1. Amateur
2. Professional
3. Shamateurs
4. Semi-professionals

Answer 137

1. Amateur: someone who takes part in sport, or an activity, as a pastime or hobby rather than for gain. They take part for enjoyment only, do not get paid and usually have a full time job.
2. Professional: someone who takes part in a sport, or an activity as a
3. means of their livelihood. They get paid for taking part and do it as a full time job.
4. Shamateurs: these are people who claim to be amateurs but are in fact, being paid to take part. These payments would be illegal and unofficial.
5. Semi-professionals: these are people who have a job and also take part in sport, for which they are legally paid. Some have full time jobs and only take part in their sport in their spare time and others have part time jobs and spend the rest of their time at their sport.

Not all people who take part in sport fit neatly into any of these categories and it is often very difficult, in certain sports, to tell who is what. There are many ways around the rules.

Question 138

Who decides if professional or amateur?

Answer 138

The sport’s international governing body decides the rules about amateurs and professionals and what they can and can’t do.

1. Many sports divide players into professionals and amateurs, with the professionals at the top. E.g. football. Amateurs and professionals don’t usually compete together.
2. In some sports most athletes, even the top ones are amateurs such as in swimming and athletics.
3. Some sports are open. Amateurs and professionals can compete freely in most events such as in tennis.

Question 139

Are top athletes really not paid?

Answer 139

To become a top athlete, you need to devote yourself full time to your
sport. In this case money comes in from different ways:

1. Scholarships: Many universities and colleges (outside Malta) offer sports scholarships which allow almost full time sport to be undertaken with little or no study involved.
2. Jobs (Occupations): In many countries athletes are given token ‘jobs’ such as PE instructors in the army or police force, so that they can train full time.
3. Special Training Camps: Promising young athletes may be sent to sports schools and then training camps, where they remain long past the age when most people get a job.
4. Trust Funds: Athletes in athletics can accept prize and appearance money, but not directly. It is paid into a trust fund in order to preserve their amateur status. Money from the fund is used to cover the athlete’s training and living expenses.
5. Grants and Sponsorships: Amateur athletes can seek grants or sponsorships from businesses.
6. Gifts: Items such as cars can be given to athletes as gifts and then often traded in for cash.

All sports started as amateur, but the majority now have professionals who take part at the highest levels, as well as amateurs who play at lower levels.

Sport first has to be properly organised, stadiums built for spectators, sponsorship obtained and media interest generated before there is enough money in many sports for professionals to be even able to exist.

Question 140

Lesson 11.2

Answer 140

SPONSORSHIP

Question 141

What is sponsorship?

Answer 141

• Sponsorship is where a business provides support usually financially for an event or team or athlete.
• It has now become very rare to find any aspect of sport where there is not some form of sponsorship. Sponsorship is an investment.
• The company expects to get something back in return.
• Sponsorship helps the company to sell its product. The company wants to have an impact on likely customers.
• The impact comes through the link between the sporting activity and the product.
• The aim is to improve the business of the company.

When a company looks at sponsoring a sport, it must consider the following questions:

1. Will our product go well with the sport?
2. Is the public interested in the sport?
3. Will the individual, team or event be seen on television?
4. Will there be publicity on radio or on the newspapers?
5. Will lots of people attend the event?
6. Will the team or individual win?

Question 142

Who receives sponsorship in sport?

Answer 142

Today, sponsorship is available throughout the sporting world. It is not only
the stars of sport who are sponsored.

Local teams and individuals can also find sponsors, often from the local community.

Sponsorship is received by:

1. individual sportspeople, sports teams and groups, governing bodies, coaching and achievement schemes and sporting events.

Question 143

Who receives sponsorship in sport? - Individual sportspeople

Answer 143

1. World champions and Olympic medallists can choose their sponsors.
2. Successful sportspeople are in great demand.
3. Sponsorship for professional sportspeople, adds money to their income from sport.
4. For younger up and coming sportspeople it enables them to buy the best equipment and helps with training, competition and travelling costs.
5. Top amateurs rely on sponsorship to pay living expenses.
6. They can then give up work or work part time.
7. Money is also available for equipment, clothing, travel, accommodation and the expenses of training and competition.

Question 144

Who receives sponsorship in sport? - Sports teams and groups

Answer 144

1. Successful professional sports teams attract a lot of sponsorship.
2. Sponsors like to be linked to success and excellence.
3. Amateur teams who are sponsored may get equipment and clothing, training and travelling expenses paid.

Question 145

Who receives sponsorship in sport? - Governing bodies

Answer 145

Governing bodies receive sponsorship to develop the sport generally, for
events and special projects.

Question 146

Who receives sponsorship in sport? - Coaching and achievement schemes

Answer 146

• Most children are very happy to win a competition or achieve a standard in sport.
• Many sponsors support achievement schemes for young people.
• Sponsors pay all the costs of running the scheme, including badges, medals, trophies and certificates. They hope to get credit for encouraging young people to take part in sport and improve their ability.

Question 148

Who receives sponsorship in sport? - Sporting events

Answer 148

• International matches and championship finals are very popular with sponsors.
• These events are televised and the sponsor is guaranteed good publicity.
• Sponsors pay for the administration, organisation and expenses of the event.
• Sometimes companies sponsor a league or cup competition which takes place over a period of time.
• Most major events depend on sponsorship in order to take place. Local events are also sponsored, with companies benefiting from local publicity.
• There are advantages and disadvantages to sports sponsorship for both the sports and the sponsoring companies themselves.

Question 149

Advantages of sponsorship for sport

Answer 149

For professional sportspeople, sponsorship is just another part of their
income. For amateur sportspeople, sponsorship may:

1. allow them to give up their jobs and train full time;
2. pay day-to-day living expenses;
3. pay for clothing and equipment;
4. pay for costs of training and competition.

For amateur organisations, sponsorship money can be used to:

1. fund the running of events;
2. improve facilities;
3. organise coaching and training schemes;

Question 150

Disadvantages of sponsorship for sport

Answer 150

• once sponsorship is accepted, the sport comes to rely on it.
• If sponsorship is removed, there may be financial problems for sport.
• This gives the sponsor a powerful hold on the sport;sponsors may be able to change the sport;some sports have little television appeal and so attract little sponsorship.
• They may find it hard to develop their sport without money from sponsorship; governing bodies make agreements with sponsors.
• These agreements affect their sportspeople.
• They may be forced to wear the sponsor’s clothing or use the sponsor’s equipment.
• Their name will also be linked to the sponsor without them being consulted first.

Question 151

Advantages for the sponsor

Answer 151

1. sponsorship advertise the name of their product;
2. sponsorship links the product with a popular activity;
3. sponsorship provides exposure on television whenever the sport is seen;
4. sponsorship ensures the use of the sponsor’s name in the media;
5. sponsorship improves a company’s reputation because the company is supporting the sport;
6. sponsorship transfers the spectator’s good feeling about the sport in the sponsor company’s product;
7. sponsorship reduces tax on the company depending how they give the money to sport.

Question 152

Disadvantages for the sponsor

Answer 152

The sponsor has difficulty in deciding whether or not the sponsorship has been good value for money. The questions to be asked include:

1. has the sportsperson, team or event been successful?
2. has the publicity been good in the media; especially television?
3. does the public link the sponsor with the sport?
4. does the public feel good about the sponsor?
5. have sales increased?

Sponsorship agreements last for a period of time, sometimes years.

Sponsors sign agreements. They cannot pull out quickly if things go wrong.

From time to time the action of the sportsperson or team brings bad publicity. This can happen because of their sporting behaviour or their behaviour in their private lives. The sponsor may want to withdraw its sponsorship. Sponsors need successful people. Regular losers and weak teams attract few sponsors.

Question 153

Lesson 11.3

Answer 153

SPORT AND THE MEDIA

Question 154

Differenet ways that media is used in sport

Answer 154

When we talk about media we are referring to all the different ways that are used to bring us stories, news, action and information.

Books, magazines, newspapers, radio, film and video, CD ROMs, internet, cinema and television are all ways in which the media can make use of.

Books:

• Successful books on sport are usually the life stories of current sports stars.
• At regular intervals, the histories of individual sports or their clubs
• are published in great detail. Coaching and training books help us to
• improve our sporting performance.

Magazines:

• There is a wide choice of reading about sorts on magazines from major activities like tennis to minority sports like triathlon.
• Within the covers are packed pages of pictures, stories and news about particular sports.

Newspapers:

• All national newspapers give several pages to sport and employ a large number of sports journalists.
• Some newspapers carry more details about the private lives of the sports stars than they do about the sports itself.
• Newspapers are good at building stars up when they are successful.
• However, they are even better at knocking them down when they fail.
• Today, newspapers play a major part in forming our views about sport.
• The way sports writers present sport, and the pictures they use, affect how we think about sport.

Radio:

• Before television, the great advantage of radio was that it reported events live.
• The commentator described the action as it happened and the listeners felt they were there. In spite of television, radio still has its place today.
• From the radio companies’ points of view, it is much cheaper to
• report on radio, and uses a much smaller team of people. For the listener, radios are much cheaper and more mobile than televisions.
• This gives radio its great advantage.
• We can do other things at the same time as listening to the match, race or competition.
• It allows us to keep in touch with the sporting action.

Film and video:

• Sport, being dramatic, full of heroic triumph and tragic tears, makes fabulous material for films.
• Video collections of great sporting occasions and outstanding individual performances are very popular.
• We can relive past glories whenever we like, in the comfort of our own homes.
• There are also instructional videos for improving our sporting performances and to help coaches.
• Videos of your own sports performance is also seful.
• You can analyze it in detail and talk it over with your coach.

Computer – CD ROMs and the Internet:

• CD ROMs contain a wealth of information about a whole range of subjects.
• For example, we can find out every detail about the modern Olympic Games from just one disk.
• Through the internet, we can get information on sporting subjects from around the world.

We can group the types of media as follows:

1. magazines, books and newspapers;
2. radio;
3. television, film, cinema and video;
4. computer – CD ROMs and the Internet.

Question 155

How the media affect sport

Answer 155

• The media have an enormous impact on sport.
• This is particularly true of TV.
• Some of the effects are good, some not.

Question 156

Advantages of media influence

Answer 156

1. The media help to promote the sport. Sporting events are seen, heard and read about by millions of people.
2. They create sports ‘stars’ who may inspire young athletes.
3. When a sport gets a lot of media attention, more people get interested in playing that sport.
4. Sports that get a lot of coverage, especially on TV, find it easier to obtain sponsorship.
5. The media can educate and inform you about sport, such as in
   documentaries, coaching programmes and discussion of current
   issues.
6. TV companies pay large sums to the governing bodies of sport for the right to broadcast events.
7. This money is usually used to develop the sport.

Question 158

Disadvantages of media influence

Answer 158

1. Media exposure may foster the desire to win at all costs rather than play for enjoyment
2. There is more pressure on managers, coaches and team captains to get results.
3. The media may pursue them out of their jobs if they fail.
4. Sports stars lose privacy.
5. Their private lives get reported on.
6. TV may force changes on a sport such as a sport being played all year round from being just a winter league for viewers to watch and enjoy.
7. The media may over-sensationalise events. In other words overdo it.

Question 159

How the media present sport

Answer 159

• When you read about something in the paper, or watch it on TV, or listen on the radio, it is not like being there yourself.
• The event has been ‘packaged’.
• The people working on the medium have decided what to put in, what to leave out and what point of view to take.
• What you see is often more exciting than the actual fact thanks to close-up shots, slow motion replays, interviews and a dramatic commentary.
• The way an event is packaged in the media depends on how much time, space and money is available.
• But it also depends on whether the media maker is trying to:
  
  1. entertain you
  2. inform you
  3. educate you
  4. ‘hype’ an event
  5. attract attention
  6. please the sponsor
  7. express a particular point of view.

Question 160

Television and Satellite TV

Answer 160

Television:

1. Whether you love sport or hate it, you certainly can’t get away from it on television.
2. An ever increasing number of hours are devoted to sports of very many different kinds.
3. This is because sport is immensely popular and relatively cheap to produce for television.
4. In the past, governing bodies were not interested in having their sport shown on television.
5. They were worried it would reduce the number of spectators going to the events.
6. The payment of television rights at this time did not compensate for this loss of gate money.
7. Today, most people experience sport through television, rather than taking part in it or watching events live.
8. This emphasis the importance of sport on television.

Satellite television:

1. Satellite television has had a great impact on sport. It allows us to watch sports events live from around the world. It also gives us the choice of a large number of channels.
2. This has resulted in many minor sports being seen regularly on television.
3. Of course, satellite sport is not free.
4. It is only available if you have the money to spend on the equipment and the monthly payments to the company.

Question 161

How is sport shown on television?

Answer 161

• Sport on television appears in many different forms.
• We can watch live events as they take place and then see the edited highlights later.
• News programmes bring the results of major events as well as the latest results in different sports and the latest stories.
• There seems to be no limit to the amount of analysis, discussion and interviewing which we can see on some sporting subjects.

Question 162

Sports, sponsorship and television

Answer 162

• Today sport, television and sponsorship are very closely linked.
• What brings them together is money.
• Television wants to show major events because they are so popular with the public.
• The television companies are prepared to pay vast sums of money to win exclusive rights.
• At the same time, companies want to sponsor the sports and sports stars, who are likely to be seen on television.
• This is to improve the sales of their products.

Question 163

Sport and commercialisation

Answer 163

• Sponsorship and television have combined to change sport and its performers into a product to be sold.
• Sport is used to make money.
• Sport is not just important for its own sake, it has become a business.
• Sport today, at the highest level, is like show business with its stars, very high salaries and need for spectacular performances.

Question 164

How do sports programmes affect our opinions about sport?

Answer 164

• Television presenters, commentators, producers and editors aim to attract us and keep us watching their own programmes.
• In doing so, they influence our opinions.
• The way sport is presented on television affects our views about it.

Question 165

How does television affect sport?

Answer 165

Television benefits sport in the following ways:

1. Sport increases in popularity. This is especially true when a national team or an individual does very well in international sport.
2. Large amounts of money come into sport from the sponsors and television companies.
3. This money can be used to pay those taking part and to help the development of the sport.
4. Some sports have been saved from economic collapse by money from the sponsors and television companies.
5. It has been needed because costs have increased but crowds have decreased.
6. Television increases the rewards for both individuals and teams. This in turn raises the standards of performance.

Television also causes the following problems for sport:

1. Rule changes have made some sports more exciting for the television audience.
2. Changes have been made in clothing.
3. Starting times of events have been altered to increase the number of viewers. Games are sometimes played in the heat.
4. The authority of officials can be undermined when their decisions are examined in detail. Constant criticism of officials is not good for sport.
5. Domination of television by a few of the most popular sports can lead to the impression that others are of little importance.
6. The emphasis on winning produces sportspeople and teams who are desperate for success.
7. This might encourage sportspeople to take part too often, to play when injured, to resort to unsporting play or to cheat by using drugs.
8. Some sport have great difficulty in making their sport attractive for
   television such as squash.
9. There will be bad publicity for sport when such things as violence,
   drug abuse or personal problems make all the headlines.

Question 166

How does television influence us?

Answer 166

• Television viewers are affected by televised sport in a number of ways.
• The vast amount of sport on the different channels means that we all know more about what is going on in the world of sport.
• This means that we have more detailed knowledge about our own favourite sports and also a better understanding of all the new and less popular sports.
• Sports stars can act as an inspiration for us all and as role models for young people.

Question 167

How does television influence people to watch, or take part in sport?

Answer 167

• The answer is that we are not sure.
• We can claim that television increases our interest in sport of all types.
• Though we can say that many of us would rather watch sport in the comfort of our homes than go to an event.
• Good television coverage of sports means that there will be little reason for us to go and watch it take place.
• Television certainly encourages us to be a nation of sports watchers.
• It seems less likely that it will inspire us to put on our sports kits and take part.

Question 168

Lesson 11.5

Answer 168

PARTICIPATION BY WOMEN

Question 169

Women in sport

Answer 169

• Today it is possible for women to take part in almost any sport as social changes have gradually given them more and more opportunities to control their own lives.
• This was not so in the past as many sports were not open to women.
• The history of sport is mainly the history of men’s sport.
• Girls in the past were encouraged to play with dolls, to learn to cook and to keep themselves clean.
• Many years ago women were regarded as fragile creatures.
• Heavy physical activity would harm their internal organs and affect their ability to have children.
• It was also unladylike to look glowing, messy or sweaty.
• A woman should look delicate. In contrast boys were encouraged to play ball games, to climb trees and to get covered in mud.
• As a result boys had greater opportunities to develop the skills of sports and the confidence that goes with them.
• Boys think a lot of their peers who are good at sport. Sport has high status for them.
• In contrast many girls have been turned off PE at school and so do not consider sporting achievement to be important.
• Male, female stereotypes continue into adult life.
• Some sports are still seen as unsuitable for women.
• Women do not think that playing sport will make them attractive to men.
• Married women are expected to take responsibility for the home and children.
• This reduces the time and energy they have for sport.

Question 170

Women in sport. What is being done?

Answer 170

The sports council has targeted women in a number of campaigns. In 1993 it published a policy and framework for action:

1. to improve girls’ skills and to develop a positive attitude to an active life;
2. to increase the opportunities for women to take part in sport;
3. to increase the opportunities for women to improve their level of performance;
4. to increase the number of women involved in the organisation of sport;
5. to encourage all organisations to have equal opportunities;
6. to improve communication about women in sport.

Question 171

Women in sport. Participation is increasing.

Answer 171

Since the early 1970’s women’s participation has increased. This is due to:

1. the recognition that exercise is good for your health;
2. greater economic freedom.
3. More women are earning more and don’t have to depend on men for money;
4. sports council efforts to promote sport for everyone;
5. an increase in the number of facilities offering activities that appeal to women such as aerobics, swimming, tennis, volleyball and basketball.

But participation is still far too low even though we have seen a big improvement in recent years.

Question 172

Why does sports for women lag behind men’s?

Answer 172

1. Mistaken beliefs: Many sports were thought too dangerous or difficult for women.
2. Attitude to women in sport: Many people feel that sport is a men’s world. It is okay for women to exercise so that they look more shapely and attractive. But being tough, competitive and muscular is not appropriate for women.
3. Shortage of role models: A role model is someone you admire and on whom you can model yourself. In the past there haven’t been many role models for women but this has changed a bit in recent years.
4. The media: Little coverage is given to women’s sports in the media.
5. Lack of sponsorship: Women’s sports find it hard to attract sponsors. Sponsors use sport to advertise their products and they go for the sports with most viewers. Men’s sports get most viewers and men generally have more spending power, so men’s sports get the sponsorship money.

Question 173

Women in other areas of sport

Answer 173

• Sport also needs administrators, coaches and teachers.
• In both men’s and women’s sports there are very few of these.
• Men are in control of most sports.
• Women are perfectly able to coach other women and to organise and run their own sports and the best way to move forward is for women to take more responsibility for them.

Question 174

Lesson 11.6

Answer 174

DISCRIMINATION IN SPORT

Question 175

Black and ethnic minorities and sport

Answer 175

• In our multicultural society, people of different races and ethnic backgrounds take part in sport at all levels.
• As a result of this, we often assume that they face no problems in sport.
• However, there is discrimination and disadvantage in sport as there is in everyday life.

Question 176

Discrimination in sport. What needs to be changed?

Answer 176

• Racism means not treating people of different races equally.
• Personal racism is seen when black or ethnic minority people are made to feel unwelcome by individuals at a sport club.
• Racism is a major problem in spite of the efforts of many committed people who work to eliminate racial inequality.

Question 177

Black and ethnic minorities and sport

Answer 177

• In our multicultural society, people of different races and ethnic backgrounds take part in sport at all levels.
• As a result of this, we often assume that they face no problems in sport.
• However, there is discrimination and disadvantage in sport as there is in everyday life.

Question 178

What needs to be changed?

Answer 178

• Racism means not treating people of different races equally.
• Personal racism is seen when black or ethnic minority people are made to feel unwelcome by individuals at a sport club.
• Racism is a major problem in spite of the efforts of many committed people who work to eliminate racial inequality.

Question 179

What is being done?

Answer 179

The aim of the sports council is to work towards the elimination of racial
disadvantages and discrimination in order to achieve better quality sport
for black and ethnic minority people.

They have six main objectives:

1. to raise awareness of racial inequality in sport;
2. to increase the number of black and ethnic minority decision makers in sport;
3. to increase the number of black and ethnic minority people involved in sports organisation;
4. to improve skill and develop a positive attitude to an active life for young black and ethnic minority people;
5. to increase opportunities for black and ethnic minority people to take part in sport;
6. to increase opportunities to improve the level of performance of black and ethnic minority people.

Question 180

Older people and sport

Answer 180

In general, people are less physically active as they get older.

Question 181

Older people and sport. What needs to be changed?

Answer 181

• If older people have not exercised for a long time it is hard to get their bodies working again.
• Some may not have had the opportunities to learn skills when they were young. Others may have had illnesses which mean they have to be cautious when exercising.
• Older people living on pensions may only have a limited amount of money for leisure spending.
• Most sports centres do offer older people special rates, especially if they come along at off peak times.
• Older people are less likely to be able to afford to run a car and may find it difficult to get to sports facilities.

Question 182

Older people and sport. What is being done?

Answer 182

• In 1983 the Sports Council started its campaign ‘Sports for All – 50 plus all to play’ for.’
• It is still going. It encourages older people to take part in sport.
• It emphasises not just the health benefits but also the social benefits of an active life style.
• Local authority leisure and recreation departments usually offer a full range of activities for the 50 plus age group.

Question 183

Careers in sport

Answer 183

• When we talk about careers in sport we usually think of the glamorous lifestyle of some of the top sports stars. These sportspeople have
• outstanding ability. We must remember they are the lucky few. The
• rewards for the majority of professional sportspeople are much smaller.
• There are many careers in sport apart from performing. Most of
• these jobs do not make the headlines, although they are essential to
• sport.

Question 184

Sports as a career

Answer 184

Question 185

Lesson 11.7

Answer 185

SPORTING BEHAVIOUR?

Question 186

Sports etiquette

Answer 186

• A sport has written rules. But it also has etiquette, i.e. an unwritten code of good behaviour.
• For example, when a football player is injured, the ball may be kicked out of play on purpose so that the casualty can get treatment.
• When play resumes, it is usually given back to the team who kicked it out.
• This is not a rule.
• You don’t have to behave this way.
• It has to do with a sporting attitude and a sense of fair play.
• Failing to do so could cause problems or even the media assaulting that particular player or team.
• This could also lead to violence.

Question 187

Violence among players

Answer 187

• In certain sports it is very rare that you hear of instance of athletes being rude or violent such as in gymnastics, athletics, darts, etc.
• Nevertheless there are several sports especially contact sports like football, rugby and basketball were violence comes in.
• Violence among players damages a sport. It is up to the club, managers, coaches and governing bodies to control it as much as possible.
• Many sports rules have been reinforced in the last few years to limit the violence amongst athletes.
• Harsher consequences have been included to control it even better.

Question 188

The role of spectators

Answer 188

Spectators can be in different venues and places. You can be a spectator
at home, watching the games on TV or else you can be a spectator in the
stadium. Either way you are showing an importance to your particular sport. Spectators are important because:

1. At a live venue spectators help their teams by cheering them on.
2. The atmosphere can be really exciting.
3. Teams are more likely to win at home then away as home support encourages and motivates the players even more.
4. As they help fund their favourite clubs by buying tickets for events, and flags, posters and other merchandise.
5. Without TV spectators, sport just wouldn’t get shown on TV.
6. Without sport on TV, clubs and athletes would have far more difficulty in finding sponsorship.

Question 189

Violence among spectators

Answer 189

• Spectators usually help sport, but they can also harm it. An example to this would be football hooligans.
• They ruin events by fighting the opposing fans.
• They throw stones, bottles and other weapons on the pitch.
• They smash up the streets and shops around them.
• Hooliganism is often planned in advance, even across continents.
• Racism, religious beliefs and past history memories cause hooliganism in sport.
• It is a problem not just for the police and clubs but for all of society.

Question 190

Combating football hooliganism

Answer 190

These are some of the steps taken to fight hooliganism:

1. crowd segregation and fences at venues to keep rival fans apart;
2. closed-circuit TV cameras around venues;
3. membership schemes to make it easier to ban troublemakers;
4. a ban by some clubs on all away fans;
5. police in different cities and countries sharing information about known hooliganism and passing on warnings about them;
6. severe punishments and consequences on those who break the rules and laws.

• Police play an important role in preventing hooliganism.
• They patrol venues, the streets around them and increase in numbers in very hot and delicate matches.
• Clubs have to pay towards police costs at times and pay for all vandalism caused.
• Various changes have been made to stadiums to avoid tragic accidents.
• All stadiums are nowadays surrounded by seating positions for spectators.
• This is known as the Taylor’s report. Standing areas have been removed.
• Therefore upgrading and improving the stadiums has been the main aim.
• Now nearly all sports grounds have their capacity decreased (which
  effects their income), to reduce dangers and incidents of crowd
  disturbances.
• If a club or organisation is not able to take care of its spectators properly and safely it may well go out of business.