Substance Dualism

Question 1

What is substance dualism?

Answer 1

a substance is an entity, a thing that does not depend on another entity for its continued existence. It has ‘ontological independence’.
The mind and the body are two distinct substances - mental and physical.
Neither need each other to depend on each other, as seen in the arguments from indivisibility and conceivability

Question 2

What is the argument from indivisibility?

Answer 2

I cannot imagine my consciousness being divided (e.g. I cannot be conscious in two places at once)
However, my body can be divided (e.g. my limbs are detachable)
Leibniz’s law - if two substances have different properties they are not the same thing
Therefore, mind and body are different.

Question 3

Is the mental divisible? (counter the argument from indivisibility)

Answer 3

Modern neuroscience proves that the mental is in fact divisible, for example; multiple personality disorders have shown that people can divide their consciousness.

Question 4

Is everything physical divisible? (counter the argument from indivisibility)

Answer 4

There are physical states that would be nonsensical to divide - for example; running or being to hot.

Question 5

What is the argument from conceivability?

Answer 5

If I can clearly and distinctively conceive of two things separately then it must be possible.
If I can conceive of it being possible then God can make it possible
The only thing I can conceive of myself of not being able to do is thinking
I have a clear and distinct idea of my mind being Independent from my body but my body cannot be conscious without a mind.
Because my idea of the mind is unextended, and the body is extended, my body must be distinct from the mind

Question 6

Is what is conceivable always possible? (counter the argument from conceivability)

Answer 6

Some people may not know about Pythagoras’ theorem and they may be able to conceive of a triangle without this property.
However, a triangle that doesn’t follow Pythagoras’ theorem is impossible.
The fact that Descartes can conceive of his mind being distinct from his body, doesn’t necessarily mean it is possible.

Question 7

Is what is possible telling us anything about reality? (counter the argument from conceivability)

Answer 7

We cannot infer anything about the world from dualism, metaphysical possibility doesn’t tell us what is physically possible.
We may not now understand how the brain produces consciousness, but this is only a limitation in what we know.

Question 8

Is the mind without the body actually conceivable? (counter the argument from conceivability)

Answer 8

We recognise people as being the same as their bodies. Friends and family are physical, not mental. If they lost their bodies we would not be able to recognise them.
If it was conceivable to exist without a body, there would be no reason why we can’t get different bodies.

Question 9

Is the mind dependent on the brain? (counter the argument from conceivability)

Answer 9

Our mentality depends on our brains. Memories make us who we are and are stored in the brain. Sensations are also produced by the activation of specific areas of the brain.

Question 10

How does evolution disprove the argument from conceivability?

Answer 10

Evolution shows that we evolved from other animals and our appearance on this planet can be explained in purely physical terms. Evolution shows that the appearance of non-physical mind cannot be explained.

Question 11

What is the issue of causal interaction?

Answer 11

Descartes says that the mind is unextended, immaterial and has no solidity/mass, and the body is extended, material and has solidity/mass.
In order for two things to interact they must have common properties.

Question 12

What is interactionist dualism?

Answer 12

Mind and body interact, my mental act of volition can cause a physical action to occur in my body.
Descartes claims that the mind and the body is connected through the pineal gland.

Question 13

What is the law of the conservation of energy?

Answer 13

The physical universe is a closed system
In any closed system, energy must be conserved
Mind and body must causally interact
Causation involves the transfer of energy
Therefore, mind must be physical

Question 14

What is occasionalism? (solution to the issue of causal interaction)

Answer 14

The mind and the body do not actually interact, it is only an illusion.
God organises mental and physical universes so that they coincide in law-like ways
When I hit my hand with a hammer, God causes the pain.

Question 15

What is epiphenomenalism? (solution to the issue of causal interaction)

Answer 15

The ‘mind’ is a product of the brain, but cannot causally influence the body and its actions. Mental states are produced by physical brains, but have no influence on bodies.
If someone pretends to hit us we may flinch, this shows that the nervous system and the body can act without consulting the mind.
Mental states like sensations are caused by the brain but the ‘mind’ cannot interact/influence the brain.
Like a steam train - the whistle is produced by the engine which drives the train forwards but the whistle does not influence the motion of the train.

Question 16

Why is introspection an issue for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 16

It goes against common sense to say that our volition doesn’t cause our actions, because we can see this through introspection.
The introspective awareness of our minds shows that they represent a stream of causally linked events.
For example; the conscious decision of me wanting a cup of tea, must be what causes me to reach out for my cup of tea.

Question 17

Why is the role of qualia an issue for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 17

Our reactions to qualia show that our mental phenomenon does influence our actions.
When I feel pain from touching fire, I will withdraw my hand.
If mental phenomenon does not influence our actions then I wouldn’t withdraw my hand from the fire.

Question 18

Why is free will and responsibility an issue for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 18

If my actions are determined exclusively by physical processes, then the intention or decision is causally impotent. This means I have no choice over my actions.
If human actions are determined by physical laws then the choices I make in any given instant, are the result of these laws. I could not have chosen any otherwise than what I did, and therefore I am not free.

Question 19

Why is evolution an issue for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 19

If conscious experiences have no causal role to play in our behaviour, then there would be no reason to have them.
If we accept the theory of evolution, then there would be no reason to have mental states as they have no survival value.

Question 20

What is the issue of self-knowledge for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 20

Epiphenomenalism is incompatible with forming beliefs/meaningfully talking about your own mental states. If mental states cannot cause anything physical then they cannot cause me to talk about them.
When I say ‘I am in pain’ this could not have been caused by my introspective awareness because the mental state of pain causes nothing.

Question 21

Why are other minds an issue for epiphenomenalism?

Answer 21

We cannot know that other people have minds. Usually we can observe behaviour to see that other people have minds.
However, if behaviour is not the product of mental states - as epiphenomenalism says - we cannot prove that other people have minds.