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stuff you forgot in final blurting Flashcards

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1
Q

module6

key asp of diff between som + GL mutation

A
  • Som: cccur in body cells (i.e. not gametes) - occurs in a single cell
  • GL: present in gametes
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2
Q

module6

CF type of mutn?

A

pt mutn present in all gametes

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3
Q

module6

what does lack of CFTR protein on epithl surface mean?

A

no pumping out chloride ions -> thick secretions in lungs, etc.

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4
Q

module6

non-coding dna features

A
  • more likely to have a silent mutation

but could also have sig imp

  • if mutn in promoter rgn may result in gene never being expressed; if in enhancer region may -> over-expression of gene (strain cell resources)
  • plus intron/exon not being removed/being removed
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5
Q

module6

why mutn in coding dna can be argued to have more of an imp?

A

More likely to cause physical impact to protein produced - can cause inactive/incorrect protein which cannot fulfil its function

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6
Q

module6

expl past biotech 🌽 process

A
  • farmers selected seeds from plants with desireable traits and planted these
  • over time, generations of teosinte much larger, tastier, crunchier
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7
Q

module6

positives of 🌽 biotech

negatives of 🌽 biotech

A

POS

  • larger; able to feed more people
  • easier to grow/cultivate
  • able to become staple food source

NEG

  • reduces biodiversity - prone to disease which may wipe out entire/most of pop
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8
Q

module6

process of 🧀/yoghurt production - past

A

Heat milk to kill undesirable bacteria + denature whey proteins

Mixture cooled + cultures of bacteria added

Bacteria cultures convert lactose → lactic acid = raise acidity of mixture

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9
Q

module6

yogh prod - positives and negatives

A

POS - ability to create different food product out of same food

NEG - animal welfare for dairy cows (bc increased dem for dairy products - may be fed increased milk production hormones or medication that induces more milk lactation), not naturally occurring process

Only selecting the same microbes - over time this may reduce biodiversity

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10
Q

why biotech good for biodiversity?

A
  • Detection + elimination of diseases in gene bank collections (which would have otherwise wiped out a part of the original population)
  • Avoid additional farmland expansion - higher yields on cultivated land reduces this
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11
Q

module6
def mutagen

A

a natural or man-made agent which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA - anything that causes a mutation

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12
Q

module6
def mutation

A

permanent change to the DNA sequence of an organism

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13
Q

module6

Correct sequence of steps following DNA being subjected to radiation

A

Mutations (occurs first!)
Change in polypeptide sequence
Change in protein
Change in cell activity (occurs last!)

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14
Q

module6

Correct sequence of steps following DNA being subjected to radiation

A
  1. mutation
  2. change in polypeptide sequence/chain
  3. change in protein
  4. change in cell activity
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15
Q

all modules

include at the start of every response

A

definition

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16
Q

module6

biotech def

A

Use/manipulation of biological materials as tools to fulfil human needs

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17
Q

module6

clone def

A

a collection of genetically identical copies

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18
Q

module6

e.g. of a disease/disorder/impact of Hepatitis B virus?

A

^ risk of developing liver failure or cirrhosis — a condition that permanently scars the liver

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19
Q

module5

what is NOT CONSIDERED an amino acid in a polypeptide chain?

A

a STOP codon

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20
Q

module6

What is NOT considered a frameshift mutation, especially after insertion and deletion of bases?

A

The pattern for a frameshift mutation is that after the deletion or insertion EVERY amino acid after the mutation is different to the original sequence of amino acids on the polypeptide

  • for e.g. if a whole amino acid (set of 3 codons) were deleted, the resultant chain of amino acids following this deletion is still the same therefore it wouldn’t be a frameshift
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21
Q

module6

how does meiosis lead to gen var?

A
  • random segregation
  • independent assortment
  • crossing over
  • non-reciprocal crossing over
  • nondisjunction
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22
Q

module6

crispr in ag

imp on biodiversity

A

Positive impacts

  • May ^ biodiversity as it can ‘edit out’ potential lethal diseases which may wipe out populations

Negative impacts

  • May outcompete respective wild variants
  • May reduce genetic variation because the process targets and chooses specific, desired genes which are inheritable by future generations
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23
Q

module6

Population genetics

A

The study of genetic variation within a population over time, including allele/gene frequency

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24
Q

module6

Conservation genetics

A

Application of genetics to preserve species through maintaining variation within species so they are capable of coping with environmental change

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25
Q

module6

indus app of biotech?

A
  • fermentations on large scale for industry, e.g. production of insulin
  • genetically engineered bacteria -> makes biofuels, detects arsenic in drinking water
  • bioremediation - remove contaminants from soil, waterways, degrades crude oil in ocean
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26
Q

module6

therapeutic cloning

A

Produces embryonic stem cells for experiments aimed at creating tissues to replace injured/diseased tissues

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27
Q

module6

key adv of whole organism cloning?

A

Reproduces the healthiest animals, thus can minimise the use of antibiotics, growth hormones and other chemicals

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28
Q

module5

rRNA?

A
  • made in nucleolus
  • forms structural part of ribosome (smaller subunit)
  • aids in protein synthesis
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29
Q

module5

what joins the amino acids in a pp chain?

A

polypeptide bonds

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30
Q

module5

what happens in post-transcriptional modification?

A

5’ end: (adds a ) 7-methylguanosine cap
3’ end: (adds a) poly (A) tail
Splicing of introns by spliceosomes BEFORE mRNA is exported to the cytoplasm

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31
Q

module5

if asked to compare internal and external fertilisation

A

talk about similarities as well

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32
Q

module5

what are the similarities between internal and external fertilisation?

A
  • Male + female gametes required
  • Sperm fertilise eggs when they unite/in close proximity to each other
  • Zygote requires a watery environment for development
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33
Q

module7

def dir contact

A

physical, close contact between a susceptible organism with an infected individual + physical transfer of microorganisms

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34
Q

module7

def vector transmission

A

living organism that carries a disease causing agent from one host to another in the life cycle of a pathogen

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35
Q

module7

types of vector transmission

A

mech vect - animal that carries a pathogen from one host to another without being infected itself

biol vect - pathogen reproduces within a biological vector that transmits the pathogen from one host to another

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36
Q

purine bases

A

A, G

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37
Q

pyrimidine bases

A

T, C

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38
Q

postulate for dna base numbers

equation + who?

A

erwin chargaff

A+G=T+C

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39
Q

START EVERY RESPONSE WITH…

A

a definition

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40
Q

indep assortment occurs during which phase of meiosis?

A

metaphase I - homologous pairs of chromosomes line up in an order independent of other pairs

or…their orientation is independent of other pairs

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41
Q

random segregation occurs during which phase of meiosis?

A

metaphase II - random separation of sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell to form genetically unique gametes

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42
Q

module5

day 1-14 follicular phase
when FSH and LH are secreted, what does this do?

A

In ovary, FSH and LH promote oestrogen production + follicle growth (Graafian Follicle moves to surface of ovary + creates bulge)

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43
Q

module5

what stimulates a surge in LH production on day 14?

A

Blood level of oestrogens rises + cells lining follicle secrete oestradiol → stimulating surge in LH production

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44
Q

module5

what preps the uterus for possible implantation?

A

CL secretes progesterone

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45
Q

module5

when n + n fuse…how long?

A

forms embryo (2n) → rapidly multiplies → takes 8-9 days from fertilisation to reach the uterus for implantation

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46
Q

module5

key organ of the pregnancy process?

A

Placenta = (through narrow space between villi) transport oxygen/nutrients from mother → foetus, remove wastes (e.g. CO2 + urea) from foetus → mother for excretion

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47
Q

module5

what hormones drop before pregnacy + why?

A

oestrogen
progesterone (maintains pregnancy)
relaxin (inhibits contractions)

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48
Q

module5

PFL for parturition?

A
  1. placenta stimulates prostaglandins production
  2. stimulates adrenal glands to secrete cortisol (which inhibits progesterone + oestrogen from being secreted)
  3. stimulate contractions + cervix dilations → stimulates sensory nerves → stimulates hypothalamus to secrete oxytocin (which then triggers production of prostaglandins causing contractions)

repeats until PEAK which is birth

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49
Q

module5

oxytocin graph during 🤰🏻?

A
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50
Q

modul

A
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51
Q

module5

relaxin graph during 🤰🏻?

A
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52
Q

module5

prolactin graph during 🤰🏻?

A
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53
Q

module5

hormones involved in lactation?

A

Oxytocin → releases stored milk
Prolactin → produces more milk

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54
Q

module5

parturition hormones?

A

Oxytocin
Relaxin
Prostaglandins
Prolactin

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55
Q

module5

role of relaxin?

A

highest levels in 1st trimester

  • inhibits uterine contractions (prevents premature birth)
  • helps body prepare for delivery by loosening the muscles and ligaments in the pelvis
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56
Q

module5

prokaryote vs eukaryote

ATCG content

A

PROKAR: GC content is more than the AT content

EUKAR: AT content is more than 4 x GC content (has more AT because with double bonds, primers tend to join to AT bases for DNA replication)

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57
Q

module5

where dna found in eukar?

A

nucleus, chloroplasts and mitochondria

58
Q

module5

where dna found in prokar?

A

cytoplasm of cells in circular plasmids (not in organelles!)

59
Q

module5

During what stage of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

A

synthesis ‘s’ phase

60
Q

module5

enzymes involved in dna replication?

A

helicase
primase
polymerase
ligase
exonuclease = removes all the RNA primers from both strands so that polymerase can fill the gaps that are left behind with DNA

61
Q

module5

dna base postulate equation

A

A + G = C + T

62
Q

module5

specific wording of primary proteins

A

sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

63
Q

module5

specific wording of secondary proteins

A

hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern

64
Q

module5

specific wording of tertiary proteins

A

3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

65
Q

module5

specific wording of quaternary proteins

A

protein consisting of more than 1 amino acid chain (polypeptide chain)

66
Q

module5

specific word to use during dna sequencing when the dna strand is separated into 2 strands?

A

denature

67
Q

module5

for nanopore sequencing, what does it NOT need?

A

PCR

68
Q

module7

how specifically hygiene practices work?

A

Hygiene practices kill pathogens = reduced risk of transfer = reduced incidence of disease

69
Q

module7

quarantine def?

A

strict isolation imposed to prevent the spread of disease or unwanted animals or plants

70
Q

module7

vaccinations def?

A

the introduction of vaccines into the body to make people resistant to infection caused by specific pathogens

71
Q

module7

public health def?

A

the science of protecting and improving the health of people and their communities

72
Q

module7

key thing about pesticides? (as a method to prevent the spread of disease)

A

prevent of the transmission of vector-borne diseases

73
Q

module7

pathogen causing giardia?

pathogen causing malaria?

pathogen causing tapeworm disease?

A

Giardiasis duodenalis

Plasmodium species

Taenia saginata

74
Q

adv of using snps in genetic analyses?

A

used to compare genetic similarities and differences within a population without having to sequence the entire genome

75
Q

module7

what is it about skin that makes it impenetrable to pathogens?

A

keratin

76
Q

module5

2022 hsc

process (more specific) of artif poll?

A
77
Q

module5

2022 hsc

what is the VERY FIRST step in polypeptide synthesis?

A

DNA is unzipped

don’t go straight into “DNA is transcribed into an mRNA strand”

78
Q

module5

i can’t believe i’m writing this but…

dna base pairs

A

A and T

C and G

79
Q

normal microflora are considered to be pathogenic when they…

A

cause symptoms in a person

80
Q

approx size of rbcs

A

6-8 μm

81
Q

^ transpiration causes _________ in temperature of 🌳

A

decrease

82
Q

module7

b cells vs t cells

A
83
Q

define gene

A

A gene is a segment of a DNA molecule that contains the instructions needed to make a unique protein

84
Q

protein -> gene

A
  • many proteins are enzymes that affect genes, e.g. enzyme RNA polymerase assists in unwinding DNA + in formation of mRNA in DNA transcription
  • some proteins have regulatory roles that turn genes ‘on’ or ‘off’
  • DNA-associated proteins play a role in regulating gene expression, e.g. histones (knob) - tighter coiled means gene expressed less, looser coiled means gene expressed more
85
Q

2020 hsc

what does the A+G=T+C postulate show about dna structure?

A

DNA is always a double-stranded molecule

86
Q

if you’ve been asked “what type of mutation”…

but if asked “what’s another type of mutation?”

A

be specific about what it is, e.g. point substitution

say chromosomal mutation - not something like “point insertion” because this doesn’t show breadth of knowledge

87
Q

cells are the…

A

basis of life

need to have cells for something to be living, hence why prions and viruses ain’t living

88
Q

what must be needed for something to classify as “cellular”?

A
  • must contain dna, not rna
  • need to have organelles such as ribosomes needed for cell to make products it needs to grow, survive and replicate
  • must be able to reproduce itself (and that is precisely why viruses aren’t cellular bc they need a host)
89
Q

module8

temp vs glucose maintenance difference

A
  • 🌡 changes are detected by the hypothalamus in the brain but changes in glucose are detected by the pancreas
  • The response to changes in 🌡 is via the nervous system but glucose is regulated via hormones
90
Q

module5

human and non-human e.g. of multiple allelism controlling a trait

A

🧔🏻: ABO blood groups - IA, IB and i

91
Q

what do viruses do when they get inside a host?

A

protein production (transcription, translation) and replicate themselves (template strand -> produce more vRNA strands)

92
Q

restriction enzymes - role in biotechnology

A

recombinant dna technology

  • desired gene and part of plasmid cut out, e.g. human insulin
  • gene cloning
  • development of pcr to amplify dna sequences for use in forensic investigations
93
Q

why pcr used in biotechnology?

A

to obtain sufficient quantities of dna for the biotechnology that requires it

94
Q

reasons for nucleus of the egg cell animal 2 being removed during scnt?

A

The nucleus of animal 2 must be removed as we are not attempting to clone animal 2 so therefore we only need the nucleus of animal 1. This method also ensures that the clone produced is diploid.

95
Q

how to use dna sequencing to determine closeness of two species?

A
  • dna sequencing on nuclear or mtDNA
  • dna samples obtained from each of the species - sequence simil sections of their genomes
  • the more similar the dna = the closer the two species
96
Q

polyploidy

A

Polyploidy arises as the result of total nondisjunction of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis

  • nondisjunction can cause the formation of gametes that have a complete set of duplicate chromosomes -> diploid gametes
  • e.g. a triploid zygote forms when a diploid gamete fuses with a haploid gamete
97
Q

trisomy vs polyploidy

A

trisomy: chromosome number is 2n+1
polyploidy: chromosome number is 3n, 4n, etc.

98
Q

specific project for conservation pop genetics case study?

A

Scientists at the University of Sydney’s Australasian Wildlife Genomics Group have loaded the entire genomes of 116 koalas to the public domain

99
Q

koala pop genetics case study

disease?

A
  • genome shows us koalas efficient at detoxification
  • can be given high doses of anti-chlamydia medication
  • assist scientists with producing improved medications, e.g. vaccines
100
Q

koala pop genetics case study

gene flow + koala locations?

A
  • shows us how modern popns have simil/diff haplotypes to historical popns
  • provides information on gene flow, breeding patt, how popns fluctuated over time
  • preservation of habitat corridors + genetic rescue of isolated popns
101
Q

if dna in plants and animals is composed of the same chem components, what is the siginificance of this?

A

plants and animals share common ancestry

102
Q

remember birth is a…

A

POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

103
Q

why CRISPR/Cas9 technology has changed the game with cutting and pasting dna?

A
104
Q

gRNA stands for?

A

guide RNA

105
Q

define biodiversity

A

Biodiversity refers to the variety of species present in an ecosystem and also the genetic diversity of the species present

106
Q

aneuploidy

A
107
Q

sig transduction process

A

The process where cells receive and convert signals from the enviro to cell responses

reception
transduction
response

108
Q

nerv syst - types of receptors (part of homeostasis)

A
  • Thermoreceptors - detect changes in temperature
  • Chemoreceptors - detect changes in pH and the concentration of certain chemicals inside the body
  • Osmoreceptors - detect changes in osmotic pressure and are located in the hypothalamus
109
Q

wtf is osmotic pressure?

A

Osmotic pressure in the blood is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the blood plasma. Small changes in osmotic pressure cause the body to implement processes that regulate the amount of water in the body, keeping it within the tolerance limits.

110
Q

ways plants minimise water loss to maintain homeostasis

A
  • curling of leaves meaning the water transpired remains in close contact with the leaf = result is a high concentration of water adjacent to the leaf surface, which will move across the concentration gradient of water back into the plant. In this instance, less of the leaf surface area is exposed directly to the atmosphere.
111
Q

adaptations plants have to minimise water loss (all)

A
  • curling of leaves
  • hairy stomata
  • controlled stomata opening and closing
  • hanging leaf orientation
  • thick, waxy cuticle
112
Q

southern blue gum 🌿 adaptation

A
  • Thick, waxy cuticle - 💧 can’t move past oily outer cuticle
113
Q

Adaptations of Australian Plants to Prevent Water Loss

💉🌳 adap

A
  • Thin needle-like leaves = less transpiration of 💧 = less 💧 loss
114
Q

if there’s a q on antibiotic disks,

A

the area around the antibiotic disk is the area that the antibiotic disk has prevented bacterial growth

115
Q

Adaptations of Australian Plants to Prevent Water Loss

casurarina adap

A
  • 🌿s reduced to tiny 🟤 scales
  • Stem has taken over photo synthetic function which reduces the SA:V ratio -> minimises 💧 loss
116
Q

SAR salicylic acid used to…

A

initiate a signalling cascade to other parts of the plant

117
Q

result of gene-for-gene resistance?

A

Pathogen is inhibited from infecting new cells

118
Q

stomach chem barrier?

A

hydrochloric acid

119
Q

explain innate immune system cell death

A

All nucleated cells have MHC I molecules on their surface

If cells become infected with virus, the expression of MHC I molecules diminishes

Presence of MHC I molecules prevents the NK cell from attacking it

120
Q

suppressor t cell function

A

stop the immune response once the antigen is destroyed

121
Q

adaptation of a virus to facilitate entry/transmission between hosts

A

MEASLES VIRUS

Has 2 important proteins on its surface

  • H protein - able to attach to receptors found on human cells
  • F protein - gives virus ability to fuse with host cell’s plasma membrane, allowing viral DNA to enter host cell

→ increased ability of virus to enter human cells

122
Q

how does one example of an enzyme’s structure lead to its function?

A

Hydrogen peroxidase (catalase)

  • Consists of 4 polypeptide chains
  • Found in liver + breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide into oxygen + water
123
Q

other points of comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic dna?

A

pro - DNA in a single chromosome
small number of genes

euk - DNA in many chromosomes
large number of genes

124
Q

medical transgenic - haemophilia

A

Many copies of a gene (F8 gene) that specifies for a protein (coagulation factor VIII) that can help clot blood are produced via PCR

These copies are placed into DNA vectors (plasmid) which are absorbed and replicated using bacteria (transgenic species)

Resulting modified plasmids inserted into a sheep such that it produces milk whereby the blood clotting factor can be extracted

125
Q

synthetic insulin process

A

see notes

126
Q

module5

tubers

A
127
Q

distinguishing between autosomal and sex-linked (3 rules)

A

It’s HIGHLY LIKELY sex-linked if:

The trait is more common in males than females

If the mother has the trait, all her sons have it

There is no male to male transmission

128
Q

def prion

A

Defective form of protein molecule not containing DNA or RNA

129
Q

def virus + e.g.

A

Microscopic non-cellular infectious agents containing DNA, RNA, protective coating of protein

HPV - faecal-oral route

130
Q

outline HIV -> AIDS

A

HIV spreads through infected blood or fluids such as sexual secretions. Over time, the virus attacks the immune system, focusing on special cells called “CD4 cells” which are important in protecting the body from infections and cancers, and the number of these cells starts to fall. Eventually, the CD4 cells fall to a critical level, and/or the immune system weakens so much that it can no longer fight off certain types of infections and cancers.

131
Q

def protozoa

A

Eukaryotic unicellular organisms with complex life cycle

132
Q

def fungi

A

Single or multi-celled eukaryotic organisms that can survive outside a host

133
Q

tapeworm disease caused by?

A

Taenia saginata

134
Q

how genes are expressed

A

via polypeptide synthesis

the synthesis of proteins expresses the genes

135
Q

relationship between replication of dna and evolution?

A
  • if a mutation occurs during replication, the code is changed and new alleles may result -> producing genetic variation
  • mutation may be favourable - would be ‘selected’ to survive
  • on reproducing, would pass favourable genes to offspring - over time, species would undergo evolution
136
Q

hypothesis wording

A

It is hypothesised that if ….(IV) changes then the ….(DV) will change

137
Q

limitations of a model

A

Not to scale

Cannot see the process; difficult to show complexity of biological concepts

138
Q

reliability

A

first hand investigations: how consistent were the measurements?

second hand investigations: is the information trustworthy? consistent with other reputable sources?

139
Q

validity

A

first hand investigations: did it measure what you intended it to? experimental method appropriate? controlled variables kept constant?

only testing 1 variable at a time? discarded invalid measurements?

140
Q

when writing definitions, write the definition of

A

the main subject of a question, not a sub-part only

def include sub-part if it adds to your response, but you absolutely must identify the subject/overarching point of the question

HSC Biology (12 decks)

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