stuff you forgot in final blurting Flashcards
1
Q
module6
key asp of diff between som + GL mutation
A
- Som: cccur in body cells (i.e. not gametes) - occurs in a single cell
- GL: present in gametes
2
Q
module6
CF type of mutn?
A
pt mutn present in all gametes
3
Q
module6
what does lack of CFTR protein on epithl surface mean?
A
no pumping out chloride ions -> thick secretions in lungs, etc.
4
Q
module6
non-coding dna features
A
- more likely to have a silent mutation
but could also have sig imp
- if mutn in promoter rgn may result in gene never being expressed; if in enhancer region may -> over-expression of gene (strain cell resources)
- plus intron/exon not being removed/being removed
5
Q
module6
why mutn in coding dna can be argued to have more of an imp?
A
More likely to cause physical impact to protein produced - can cause inactive/incorrect protein which cannot fulfil its function
6
Q
module6
expl past biotech π½ process
A
- farmers selected seeds from plants with desireable traits and planted these
- over time, generations of teosinte much larger, tastier, crunchier
7
Q
module6
positives of π½ biotech
negatives of π½ biotech
A
POS
- larger; able to feed more people
- easier to grow/cultivate
- able to become staple food source
NEG
- reduces biodiversity - prone to disease which may wipe out entire/most of pop
8
Q
module6
process of π§/yoghurt production - past
A
Heat milk to kill undesirable bacteria + denature whey proteins
Mixture cooled + cultures of bacteria added
Bacteria cultures convert lactose β lactic acid = raise acidity of mixture
9
Q
module6
yogh prod - positives and negatives
A
POS - ability to create different food product out of same food
NEG - animal welfare for dairy cows (bc increased dem for dairy products - may be fed increased milk production hormones or medication that induces more milk lactation), not naturally occurring process
Only selecting the same microbes - over time this may reduce biodiversity
10
Q
why biotech good for biodiversity?
A
- Detection + elimination of diseases in gene bank collections (which would have otherwise wiped out a part of the original population)
- Avoid additional farmland expansion - higher yields on cultivated land reduces this
11
Q
module6
def mutagen
A
a natural or man-made agent which can alter the structure or sequence of DNA - anything that causes a mutation
12
Q
module6
def mutation
A
permanent change to the DNA sequence of an organism
13
Q
module6
Correct sequence of steps following DNA being subjected to radiation
A
Mutations (occurs first!)
Change in polypeptide sequence
Change in protein
Change in cell activity (occurs last!)
14
Q
module6
Correct sequence of steps following DNA being subjected to radiation
A
- mutation
- change in polypeptide sequence/chain
- change in protein
- change in cell activity
15
Q
all modules
include at the start of every response
A
definition
16
Q
module6
biotech def
A
Use/manipulation of biological materials as tools to fulfil human needs
17
Q
module6
clone def
A
a collection of genetically identical copies
18
Q
module6
e.g. of a disease/disorder/impact of Hepatitis B virus?
A
^ risk of developing liver failure or cirrhosis β a condition that permanently scars the liver
19
Q
module5
what is NOT CONSIDERED an amino acid in a polypeptide chain?
A
a STOP codon
20
Q
module6
What is NOT considered a frameshift mutation, especially after insertion and deletion of bases?
A
The pattern for a frameshift mutation is that after the deletion or insertion EVERY amino acid after the mutation is different to the original sequence of amino acids on the polypeptide
- for e.g. if a whole amino acid (set of 3 codons) were deleted, the resultant chain of amino acids following this deletion is still the same therefore it wouldnβt be a frameshift
21
Q
module6
how does meiosis lead to gen var?
A
- random segregation
- independent assortment
- crossing over
- non-reciprocal crossing over
- nondisjunction
22
Q
module6
crispr in ag
imp on biodiversity
A
Positive impacts
- May ^ biodiversity as it can βedit outβ potential lethal diseases which may wipe out populations
Negative impacts
- May outcompete respective wild variants
- May reduce genetic variation because the process targets and chooses specific, desired genes which are inheritable by future generations
23
Q
module6
Population genetics
A
The study of genetic variation within a population over time, including allele/gene frequency
24
Q
module6
Conservation genetics
A
Application of genetics to preserve species through maintaining variation within species so they are capable of coping with environmental change
25
module6
indus app of biotech?
* fermentations on large scale for industry, e.g. production of insulin
* genetically engineered bacteria -> makes biofuels, detects arsenic in drinking water
* bioremediation - remove contaminants from soil, waterways, degrades crude oil in ocean
26
module6
therapeutic cloning
Produces embryonic stem cells for experiments aimed at creating tissues to replace injured/diseased tissues
27
module6
key adv of whole organism cloning?
Reproduces the healthiest animals, thus can minimise the use of antibiotics, growth hormones and other chemicals
28
module5
rRNA?
* made in nucleolus
* forms structural part of ribosome (smaller subunit)
* aids in protein synthesis
29
module5
what joins the amino acids in a pp chain?
polypeptide bonds
30
module5
what happens in post-transcriptional modification?
5β end: (adds a ) 7-methylguanosine cap
3β end: (adds a) poly (A) tail
Splicing of introns by spliceosomes BEFORE mRNA is exported to the cytoplasm
31
module5
if asked to **compare** internal and external fertilisation
talk about similarities as well
32
module5
what are the similarities between internal and external fertilisation?
* Male + female gametes required
* Sperm fertilise eggs when they unite/in close proximity to each other
* Zygote requires a watery environment for development
33
module7
def dir contact
physical, close contact between a susceptible organism with an infected individual + physical transfer of microorganisms
34
module7
def vector transmission
living organism that carries a disease causing agent from one host to another in the life cycle of a pathogen
35
module7
types of vector transmission
mech vect - animal that carries a pathogen from one host to another without being infected itself
biol vect - pathogen reproduces within a biological vector that transmits the pathogen from one host to another
36
purine bases
A, G
37
pyrimidine bases
T, C
38
postulate for dna base numbers
equation + who?
erwin chargaff
A+G=T+C
39
START EVERY RESPONSE WITH...
a definition
40
indep assortment occurs during which phase of meiosis?
metaphase I - homologous pairs of chromosomes line up in an order independent of other pairs
or...their orientation is independent of other pairs
41
random segregation occurs during which phase of meiosis?
metaphase II - random separation of sister chromatids to opposite ends of the cell to form genetically unique gametes
42
module5
day 1-14 follicular phase
when FSH and LH are secreted, what does this do?
In ovary, FSH and LH promote oestrogen production + follicle growth (Graafian Follicle moves to surface of ovary + creates bulge)
43
module5
what stimulates a surge in LH production on day 14?
Blood level of oestrogens rises + cells lining follicle secrete oestradiol β stimulating surge in LH production
44
module5
what preps the uterus for possible implantation?
CL secretes progesterone
45
module5
when n + n fuse...how long?
forms embryo (2n) β rapidly multiplies β takes 8-9 days from fertilisation to reach the uterus for implantation
46
module5
key organ of the pregnancy process?
Placenta = (through narrow space between villi) transport oxygen/nutrients from mother β foetus, remove wastes (e.g. CO2 + urea) from foetus β mother for excretion
47
module5
what hormones drop before pregnacy + why?
oestrogen
progesterone (maintains pregnancy)
relaxin (inhibits contractions)
48
module5
PFL for parturition?
1. placenta stimulates prostaglandins production
2. stimulates adrenal glands to secrete cortisol (which inhibits progesterone + oestrogen from being secreted)
3. stimulate contractions + cervix dilations β stimulates sensory nerves β stimulates hypothalamus to secrete oxytocin (which then triggers production of prostaglandins causing contractions)
repeats until PEAK which is birth
49
module5
oxytocin graph during π€°π»?
50
modul
51
module5
relaxin graph during π€°π»?
52
module5
prolactin graph during π€°π»?
53
module5
hormones involved in lactation?
Oxytocin β releases stored milk
Prolactin β produces more milk
54
module5
parturition hormones?
Oxytocin
Relaxin
Prostaglandins
Prolactin
55
module5
role of relaxin?
highest levels in 1st trimester
* inhibits uterine contractions (prevents premature birth)
* helps body prepare for delivery by loosening the muscles and ligaments in the pelvis
56
module5
prokaryote vs eukaryote
ATCG content
PROKAR: GC content is more than the AT content
EUKAR: AT content is more than 4 x GC content (has more AT because with double bonds, primers tend to join to AT bases for DNA replication)
57
module5
where dna found in eukar?
nucleus, chloroplasts and mitochondria
58
module5
where dna found in prokar?
cytoplasm of cells in circular plasmids (not in organelles!)
59
module5
During what stage of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
synthesis 's' phase
60
module5
enzymes involved in dna replication?
helicase
primase
polymerase
ligase
exonuclease = removes all the RNA primers from both strands so that polymerase can fill the gaps that are left behind with DNA
61
module5
dna base postulate equation
A + G = C + T
62
module5
specific wording of primary proteins
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
63
module5
specific wording of secondary proteins
hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern
64
module5
specific wording of tertiary proteins
3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions
65
module5
specific wording of quaternary proteins
protein consisting of more than 1 amino acid chain (polypeptide chain)
66
module5
specific word to use during dna sequencing when the dna strand is separated into 2 strands?
denature
67
module5
for nanopore sequencing, what does it NOT need?
PCR
68
module7
how specifically hygiene practices work?
Hygiene practices kill pathogens = reduced risk of transfer = reduced incidence of disease
69
module7
quarantine def?
strict isolation imposed to prevent the spread of disease or unwanted animals or plants
70
module7
vaccinations def?
the introduction of vaccines into the body to make people resistant to infection caused by specific pathogens
71
module7
public health def?
the science of protecting and improving the health of people and their communities
72
module7
key thing about pesticides? (as a method to prevent the spread of disease)
prevent of the transmission of **vector-borne** diseases
73
module7
pathogen causing giardia?
pathogen causing malaria?
pathogen causing tapeworm disease?
Giardiasis duodenalis
Plasmodium species
Taenia saginata
74
adv of using snps in genetic analyses?
used to compare genetic similarities and differences within a population without having to sequence the entire genome
75
module7
what is it about skin that makes it impenetrable to pathogens?
keratin
76
module5
2022 hsc
process (more specific) of artif poll?
77
module5
2022 hsc
what is the VERY FIRST step in polypeptide synthesis?
DNA is **unzipped**
don't go straight into "DNA is transcribed into an mRNA strand"
78
module5
i can't believe i'm writing this but...
dna base pairs
A and T
C and G
79
normal microflora are considered to be pathogenic when they...
cause symptoms in a person
80
approx size of rbcs
6-8 ΞΌm
81
^ transpiration causes _________ in temperature of π³
decrease
82
module7
b cells vs t cells
83
define gene
A gene is a segment of a DNA molecule that contains the instructions needed to make a unique protein
84
protein -> gene
* many proteins are enzymes that affect genes, e.g. enzyme RNA polymerase assists in unwinding DNA + in formation of mRNA in DNA transcription
* some proteins have regulatory roles that turn genes 'on' or 'off'
* DNA-associated proteins play a role in regulating gene expression, e.g. histones (knob) - tighter coiled means gene expressed less, looser coiled means gene expressed more
85
2020 hsc
what does the A+G=T+C postulate show about dna structure?
DNA is always a double-stranded molecule
86
if you've been asked "what type of mutation"...
but if asked "what's another type of mutation?"
be specific about what it is, e.g. point substitution
say chromosomal mutation - not something like "point insertion" because this doesn't show breadth of knowledge
87
cells are the...
basis of life
need to have cells for something to be living, hence why prions and viruses ain't living
88
what must be needed for something to classify as "cellular"?
* must contain dna, not rna
* need to have organelles such as ribosomes needed for cell to make products it needs to grow, survive and replicate
* must be able to reproduce itself (and that is precisely why viruses aren't cellular bc they need a host)
89
module8
temp vs glucose maintenance difference
* π‘ changes are detected by the hypothalamus in the brain but changes in glucose are detected by the pancreas
* The response to changes in π‘ is via the nervous system but glucose is regulated via hormones
90
module5
human and non-human e.g. of multiple allelism controlling a trait
π§π»: ABO blood groups - IA, IB and i
91
what do viruses do when they get inside a host?
protein production (transcription, translation) and replicate themselves (template strand -> produce more vRNA strands)
92
restriction enzymes - role in biotechnology
recombinant dna technology
* desired gene and part of plasmid cut out, e.g. human insulin
* gene cloning
* development of pcr to amplify dna sequences for use in forensic investigations
93
why pcr used in biotechnology?
to obtain sufficient quantities of dna for the biotechnology that requires it
94
reasons for nucleus of the egg cell animal 2 being removed during scnt?
The nucleus of animal 2 must be removed as we are not attempting to clone animal 2 so therefore we only need the nucleus of animal 1. This method also ensures that the clone produced is diploid.
95
how to use dna sequencing to determine closeness of two species?
* dna sequencing on nuclear or mtDNA
* dna samples obtained from each of the species - sequence simil sections of their genomes
* the more similar the dna = the closer the two species
96
polyploidy
Polyploidy arises as the result of total nondisjunction of chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis
* nondisjunction can cause the formation of **gametes** that have a **complete set of duplicate chromosomes** -> diploid gametes
* e.g. a triploid zygote forms when a diploid gamete fuses with a haploid gamete
97
trisomy vs polyploidy
trisomy: chromosome number is 2n+1
polyploidy: chromosome number is 3n, 4n, etc.
98
specific project for conservation pop genetics case study?
Scientists at the **University of Sydneyβs Australasian Wildlife Genomics Group** have loaded the entire genomes of 116 koalas to the public domain
99
koala pop genetics case study
disease?
* genome shows us koalas efficient at detoxification
* can be given high doses of anti-chlamydia medication
* assist scientists with producing improved medications, e.g. vaccines
100
koala pop genetics case study
gene flow + koala locations?
* shows us how modern popns have simil/diff haplotypes to historical popns
* provides information on gene flow, breeding patt, how popns fluctuated over time
* preservation of habitat corridors + genetic rescue of isolated popns
101
if dna in plants and animals is composed of the same chem components, what is the siginificance of this?
plants and animals share common ancestry
102
remember birth is a...
POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
103
why CRISPR/Cas9 technology has changed the game with cutting and pasting dna?
104
gRNA stands for?
guide RNA
105
define biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of species present in an ecosystem and also the genetic diversity of the species present
106
aneuploidy
107
sig transduction process
The process where cells receive and convert signals from the enviro to cell responses
reception
transduction
response
108
nerv syst - types of receptors (part of homeostasis)
* Thermoreceptors - detect changes in temperature
* Chemoreceptors - detect changes in pH and the concentration of certain chemicals inside the body
* Osmoreceptors - detect changes in osmotic pressure and are located in the hypothalamus
109
wtf is osmotic pressure?
Osmotic pressure in the blood is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the blood plasma. Small changes in osmotic pressure cause the body to implement processes that regulate the amount of water in the body, keeping it within the tolerance limits.
110
ways plants minimise water loss to maintain homeostasis
* curling of leaves meaning the water transpired remains in close contact with the leaf = result is a high concentration of water adjacent to the leaf surface, which will move across the concentration gradient of water back into the plant. In this instance, less of the leaf surface area is exposed directly to the atmosphere.
111
adaptations plants have to minimise water loss (all)
* curling of leaves
* hairy stomata
* controlled stomata opening and closing
* hanging leaf orientation
* thick, waxy cuticle
112
southern blue gum πΏ adaptation
* **Thick, waxy cuticle - π§ can't move past oily outer cuticle**
113
Adaptations of Australian Plants to Prevent Water Loss
ππ³ adap
* Thin needle-like leaves = less transpiration of π§ = less π§ loss
114
if there's a q on antibiotic disks,
the area around the antibiotic disk is the area that the antibiotic disk has **prevented** bacterial growth
115
Adaptations of Australian Plants to Prevent Water Loss
casurarina adap
* πΏs reduced to tiny π€ scales
* Stem has taken over photo synthetic function which reduces the SA:V ratio -> minimises π§ loss
116
SAR salicylic acid used to...
initiate a signalling cascade to other parts of the plant
117
result of gene-for-gene resistance?
Pathogen is inhibited from infecting new cells
118
stomach chem barrier?
hydrochloric acid
119
explain innate immune system cell death
All nucleated cells have MHC I molecules on their surface
If cells become infected with virus, the expression of MHC I molecules diminishes
Presence of MHC I molecules prevents the NK cell from attacking it
120
suppressor t cell function
stop the immune response once the antigen is destroyed
121
adaptation of a virus to facilitate entry/transmission between hosts
MEASLES VIRUS
Has 2 important proteins on its surface
* H protein - able to attach to receptors found on human cells
* F protein - gives virus ability to fuse with host cellβs plasma membrane, allowing viral DNA to enter host cell
β increased ability of virus to enter human cells
122
how does one example of an enzyme's structure lead to its function?
Hydrogen peroxidase (catalase)
* Consists of 4 polypeptide chains
* Found in liver + breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide into oxygen + water
123
other points of comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic dna?
pro - DNA in a single chromosome
small number of genes
euk - DNA in many chromosomes
large number of genes
124
medical transgenic - haemophilia
Many copies of a gene (F8 gene) that specifies for a protein (coagulation factor VIII) that can help clot blood are produced via PCR
These copies are placed into DNA vectors (plasmid) which are absorbed and replicated using bacteria (transgenic species)
Resulting modified plasmids inserted into a sheep such that it produces milk whereby the blood clotting factor can be extracted
125
synthetic insulin process
see notes
126
module5
tubers
127
distinguishing between autosomal and sex-linked (3 rules)
Itβs HIGHLY LIKELY sex-linked if:
The trait is more common in males than females
If the mother has the trait, all her sons have it
There is no male to male transmission
128
def prion
Defective form of protein molecule not containing DNA or RNA
129
def virus + e.g.
Microscopic non-cellular infectious agents containing DNA, RNA, protective coating of protein
HPV - faecal-oral route
130
outline HIV -> AIDS
HIV spreads through infected blood or fluids such as sexual secretions. Over time, the virus attacks the immune system, focusing on special cells called "CD4 cells" which are important in protecting the body from infections and cancers, and the number of these cells starts to fall. Eventually, the CD4 cells fall to a critical level, and/or the immune system weakens so much that it can no longer fight off certain types of infections and cancers.
131
def protozoa
Eukaryotic unicellular organisms with complex life cycle
132
def fungi
Single or multi-celled eukaryotic organisms that can survive outside a host
133
tapeworm disease caused by?
Taenia saginata
134
how genes are expressed
via polypeptide synthesis
the synthesis of proteins expresses the genes
135
relationship between replication of dna and evolution?
* if a mutation occurs during replication, the code is changed and new alleles may result -> producing genetic variation
* mutation may be favourable - would be 'selected' to survive
* on reproducing, would pass favourable genes to offspring - over time, species would undergo evolution
136
hypothesis wording
It is hypothesised that if β¦.(IV) changes then the β¦.(DV) will change
137
limitations of a model
Not to scale
Cannot see the process; difficult to show complexity of biological concepts
138
reliability
first hand investigations: how consistent were the measurements?
second hand investigations: is the information trustworthy? consistent with other reputable sources?
139
validity
first hand investigations: did it measure what you intended it to? experimental method appropriate? **controlled variables** kept constant?
only testing 1 variable at a time? discarded invalid measurements?
140
when writing definitions, write the definition of
the **main subject** of a question, not a sub-part only
def include sub-part if it adds to your response, but you absolutely must identify the subject/overarching point of the question
