Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

BIO 353 > STUDY GUIDE > Flashcards

STUDY GUIDE Flashcards

1
Q

Thalamus

A

“Relay Station” Gateway of the cortex - Receives Auditory, Somatosensory & Visual Signals • Relays Sensory Signals to the Cerebral Cortex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Autonomic Function
• Activates sympathetic nervous system, body temp, osmolarity, reprod, food intake
• Interacts with limbic system to influence behavior and emotions
• Influences cardiovascular control center in medulla oblongata
• Secretes trophic hormones that control release of hormones from anterior pituitary gland

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Regulation of cardiac and respiratory function, sleep, eating, consciousness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

The Limbic System

A
  • Emotion, memory, and learning. Primitive brain – necessary for survival
    • Control of functions necessary for self preservation and species preservation (fear, anger, eating, sex)
    • Regulate autonomic and endocrine function, particularly in response to emotional stimuli
    • Cingulate gyrus, Amgdyla
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Sensation

A

bottom-up processing, sensory receptors receive and relay outside stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Perception

A

top-down processing, brain organizes and interprets information, puts into context
(depends on sensory input and physiological state (e.g., alertness)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Somatic Sensory system

A

specific receptor structures, intracellular amplification of signal

Somatic Sensory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Sensory Coding

A

Sense organs are filters – highly selective and sensitive to specific types of stim

Somatic Sensory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Simple receptor

A

neurons with free nerve endings (somatosensory)

Somatic Sensory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Specialized sense receptors

A

non-neural. Release NT onto sensory neurons

Somatic Sensory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Complex receptor

A

nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules

Somatic Sensory system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Transduction

A

stimulus energy transformed into neural electrical activity
Each sensory receptor cell transduces a particular form of stimulus into a membrane current that changes the membrane potential of that cell (graded potentials

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Graded potentials

A

changes in membrane potential that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none
• Tend to occur in dendrites or soma of neuron
• Size and duration dependent on size and duration of stimulus
• Arise from the summation of the individual actions of ligand-gated ion channel proteins, and decrease
over time and space
• They do not typically involve voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels
• Decay with time and distance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Spatial and Temporal Summation

A

adaptation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Adaptation

A

Reduction in sensitivity due to a constant stimulus, Peripheral and Central adaptation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Topographical organization

A

point to point representation of a sensory surface in the brain
• Somatotopy
• Size of sensory input due to density of input and importance (index finger more important than elbow)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Somatic Senses

A

touch, proprioception, temperature, nociception - different than other senses
• Receptors are widely distributed throughout body
• Receptors respond to different stimuli (touch, temp, pain, body position)
• 3 sensations detected by skin
• Mechanoreceptors - Vibration, soft touch, pressure (skin, bv’s, organs)
• Thermoreceptors - Temperature
• Nociceptors - Pain: mechanical, chemical, thermal
Mechanically gated ion channels
Vibration/touch information in separate pathway from pain/temp

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Receptive Fields

A

vary in size (smaller receptive fields = greater acuity (two-point discrimination))
• Higher density of mechanoreceptors on fingertip (small receptive fields) - more brain tissue devoted to each square mm of fingertip
• Character of receptive field changes as it passes through pathway
• Neurons respond to separate aspects of stimuli (shape, size, texture) but then combine them (within
and between different senses) to identify objects

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Dermatomes

A

an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve
• Damage to single dorsal root ganglion - sensation is not usually lost in that dermatome because of overlapping segments

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Shingles

A

Herpes zoster virus reactivated in neurons of a single dorsal root ganglion – leads to increased excitability in sensory neurons, spontaneous firing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Referred pain

A

Multiple nociceptors from different regions converge on the same ascending tract in the spinal cord, Somatic pain is more common than visceral pain so brain interprets signals from viscera as skin pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Agnosia

A

Occurs with damage to posterior parietal cortex

• Astereoagnosia (tactile agnosia) – cannot recognize common objects by feeling them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Phantom limbs

A

Somatosensory cortex undergoes substantial reorganization after the loss of input
• Mirror training
Touch vs. Pain pathways
Modulation of pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Vision

A

Stimuli = Light , Electromagnetic radiation visible to our eyes (Wavelength, frequency, amplitude)
– Light enters the eye - Focused on retina by the lens
– Photoreceptors transduce light energy - Electrical signal – Electrical signal -Processed through neural pathways
Light is focused on retina by Refraction - Bending of light rays from one medium to another
– Cornea collects and bends light so it converges on back of eye
– Focal Distance – distance from reflective surface to retina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Accommodation
by the lens - the process by which the eye adjusts the shape of the lens to keep objects in focus via contraction/relaxation of ciliary muscle (for 9 m and closer)
26
Presbyopia (old eye)
Loss of elasticity – lens is less able to change shape
27
Hyperopia (far-sightedness)
occurs when focal point falls behind the retina
28
Myopia (near-sightedness)
occurs when focal point falls in front of the retina
29
Macular Degeneration
Progressive destruction of macula • Common eye condition in older people • Leading cause of blindness in older adults • Fine points in these images sent to retina are not clear - The picture is there, but the fine points are lost
30
Visual Acuity
Ability to distinguish two nearby points
31
Two types of photoreceptors
Rods and cones (red, green, blue)
32
Cones
concentrated in center of retina –
33
fovea
(in center of macula) - comprises less than 1% of retinal size but takes up over 50% of the visual cortex in the brain
34
Color blindness
Loss of one type of cone, X-chromosome-linked
35
Regional differences in retina
Varies from fovea to retinal periphery
36
Central retina
More cones, Greater acuity
37
Peripheral retina
Higher ratio of rods to cones, Higher ratio of photoreceptors to ganglion cells, More sensitive to light
38
Fovea VPFG
Visual field:Front Photoreceptor:Cones Functions:Color Acuity Ganglion ratio: 1:1
39
Periphery VPFG
Visual field: Edges Photoreceptor: Rods Functions: Night, Motion Ganglion ratio: Many:1
40
Visual pathway in retina
Light passes through ganglion and bipolar cells before reaching photoreceptors (inside out)
41
Photoreceptors
deepest layer, converts light into nerve impulses
42
Bipolar cells - Antagonistic center-surround receptive fields
The receptive fields of bipolar cells are circular - the center and the surrounding area of each circle work in opposite ways: a ray of light that strikes the center of the field has the opposite effect from one that strikes the area surrounding it (known as the "surround”)
43
Ganglion cells
have Center-Surround Receptive Fields
44
Transduction
Light is converted into electrical signals in photoreceptor cells
45
Rhodopsin
Bleaching
46
Opsin
protein that mediates the conversion of a photon of light into an electrochemical signal
47
Retinal
vitamin A derivative that absorbs light
48
Dark-Light Adaptation
Dilation of pupils, Regeneration of unbleached rhodopsin | • Calcium regulation - Calcium concentration changes in photoreceptors
49
Central visual pathway
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus is first level of visual processing that what we see is influenced by what we feel • Receptive fields of LGN neurons: Identical to the ganglion cells that feed them • Nonretinal Inputs to the LGN - Primary visual cortex provides 80% of the synaptic input to LGN
50
Cortical Receptive fields
sensitive to spatial orientation of the stimulus
51
Binocular Vision
combines information from both eyes to create depth perception
52
Parallel processing
- Perception combines individually identified properties of visual objects – Achieved by simultaneous, parallel processing of several visual pathways
53
Vestibular System
Balance, equilibrium, posture, head, body, eye movement
54
Otolith organs:
Detect changes in head angle and liner acceleration – otoliths displaced and activate hair cells
55
Semicircular canals
head rotation • Use hair cells, like auditory system, to detect changes Push-Pull Activation of Semicircular Canals – 3 semicircular canals on one side • Helps sense all possible head-rotation angles – Each paired with another on opposite side of head (one EPSP, one IPSP)
56
Vestibulo-occular Reflex
Senses rotations of head, commands compensatory movement of eyes in opposite direction • Stabilizes image on retina during head movement
57
Motion sickness
disagreement between the visual and vestibular system
58
Meniere’s Disease
disorder of the inner ear that can lead to dizzy spells (vertigo) and hearing loss. In most cases, Meniere's disease affects only one ear
59
Taste and Smell
-the principal systems for distinguishing flavorstactile, thermal, and nociceptive -sensory input from the oral mucosa contributes to food quality • Saliva also is an important factor in maintaining acuity of taste receptor cells
60
Anosmia
loss of smell, taste due to head trauma, resp infection, age
61
have strong and direct connections to limbic system -the olfactory bulb is one of the structures of limbic system
both taste and smell
62
the olfactory bulb
is one of | the structures of limbic system
63
its membrane potential changes (Receptor or graded potential) Depolarizing receptor potential cause Ca++ to enter the cytoplasm - Triggers the release of NT
When taste receptor is activated by the appropriate chemical
64
Chemoreceptors
specialized for acquiring information about the chemical environment
65
Gustatory (taste) receptors
dissolved molecules, Constant turnover of cells
66
Taste receptor cells
Not neurons, Form synapses with the endings of gustatory afferent axons near the bottom of the taste bud Each food activates a different combination of basic tastes
67
Voltage-gated channel proteins for Na , K & Ca are
present in the plasma membrane with the K - | gated channel proteins located in larger numbers on the apical membrane of the taste cells
68
Microvilli from each taste cell
project into the taste pore which communicate with the dissolved solutes on the surface of the tongue
69
Olfactory (smell) receptors
airborne molecules
70
The perception of odors
begins with inhalation and transport of volatile aromas to the olfactory mucosa
71
Each olfactory receptor
has a long, thin dendrite that terminates in a knob at the surface Several thin cilia emerge from knob – these are covered with mucous
72
Molecules that enter the nasal cavity
are absorbed into the mucous layer
73
Olfactory receptors
are neurons
74
Olfactory receptors Only neurons
in the nervous system that are replaced regularly throughout life - Every 4-8 weeks
75
Aging and smell olfactory
lose sense of smell and ability to discriminate between smells • # of fibers in the olfactory bulb, along with olfactory receptors decrease
76
Learning and Memory
Memory-An organism's ability to store, retain, and subsequently recall information
77
Learning
The process of acquiring memories/procedures
78
Synaptic plasticity
A candidate cellular mechanism or memory and learning formation
79
Brain regions involved in learning
Hippocampus – Declarative memory, episodic memory, semantic memory • Prefrontal cortex – working memory • Striatum – procedural memory • Cerebral cortex – perceptual memory, semantic memory, priming • Amygdala – emotional memory • Cerebellum – conditioned timing
80
Hippocampus and Learning
Declarative memory, episodic memory, semantic memory
81
Prefrontal cortex – and learning
working memory
82
Striatum and learning
procedural memory
83
Cerebral cortex and learning
perceptual memory, semantic memory, priming
84
Amygdala and learning
emotional memory
85
Cerebellum and learning
conditioned timing
86
Long-term memeory has two broad types
* Explicit - Declarative | * Implicit – Not-decalrative
87
Long-term memeory
Increases or decreases in the strength of synaptic connections can change the flow of information change the flow of information within neuronal circuits.
88
Synaptic plasticity
The ability of a synapse to change its strength (short- and long-term)
89
* Potentiation | * Depression
Various mechanisms: 1. Change in number/functionality of postsynaptic receptors (short & long term) 2. Change in amount of transmitter released (short-term) 3. Morphological (physical) changes (axonal sprouting, spine size (long-term) 4. Translational changes in receptor number (long-term
90
Types of Learning
* AssociativeLearning - * Adaptive Learning - Interactive, reinforcement learning (think gaming) * Imitation Learning * Supervised Learning * Motor Learning
91
AssociativeLearning
Hebb’s rule, multimodal
92
Adaptive Learning
Interactive, reinforcement learning (think gaming)
93
Imitation Learning
Learn from others (mirroring)
94
Supervised Learning
Developmental learning within circuits
95
Motor Learning
Procedural learning
96
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Efferent output from the CNS is divided into 2 pathways: Autonomic and Somatic nervous systems
97
• ANS – controls
Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle, Glands
98
ANS mostly
Mostly involuntary, contains efferent neurons that modulate the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle, gland, lymphoid, and some adipose tissue activity
99
ANS Works
with endocrine and behavioral state systems to maintain homeostasis, Regulated by hypothalamus
100
ANS Sympathetic division
“fight or flight” activity
101
ANS Parasympathetic division –
Rest and Digest (also Repro) functions in relaxed states
102
Most internal organs have antagonistic control - 1 autonomic branch is excitatory and other inhibitory
Effects depends on situation and which part of ANS is in charge (stress/maintenance)
103
Most of the time, Parasympathetic NS
is dominant
104
Most ANS response are NOT
all-out responses, Activating one pathway does not necessarily activate them all
105
Disynaptic connections
Both require 2 synapses at ganglia (group of nerve cell bodies)
106
2 types of compunds involved in ANS
* Neurotransmitters (NT) – made and released from neurons, travels across a synapse * Hormones - released by a gland
107
Neurotransmitters (NT)
made and released from neurons, travels across a synapse
108
Hormones
released by a gland
109
Symp – most release
norepinephrine (adrenergic)
110
Parasymp – release
acetylcholine
111
Termination of NT action
Diffuses away • Metabolized by enzymes • Actively transported into cells
112
Signal Molecules can have Different Effects in Different Tissues
depends on receptors (Alpha and Beta)
113
Sym NS ↑
* ↑ production of ATP * Dilation of the pupils * ↑ heart rate and blood pressure * Dilation of the airways * Constriction of blood vessels that supply the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract * ↑ blood supply to the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, liver and adipose tissue * ↑ glycogenolysis ↑ blood glucose * ↑ lipolysis
114
Sym NS Divergent
may synapse with 20 or more postganglionic neurons, effects widespread (bat signal)
115
Sym NS region
thoracic and columnar region of spinal cord, highly branched - Influences many organs
116
since the SYM NS is highly branched
• Even a small response can trigger a reaction in many different places (why you can feel exhausted after stress)
117
Parasym NS region
– Craniosacral, Parasym few branches - Localized effect
118
Parasym NS releases
• Acetylcholine released, stimulates effector, then immediately broken down by Acetylocholinesterase
119
Parasym NS ↑
Good safety mechanism for inhibitory regulation • Conserve and restore body energy • ↑ digestive and urinary function • ↓ body functions that support physical activity Autonomic Tone, Autonomic reflexes Chronic stress
120
What Activates sympathetic nervous system
Hypothalamus

BIO 353 (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions