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BIO 353 > STUDY GUIDE > Flashcards

STUDY GUIDE Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Thalamus

A

“Relay Station” Gateway of the cortex - Receives Auditory, Somatosensory & Visual Signals • Relays Sensory Signals to the Cerebral Cortex

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2
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Autonomic Function
• Activates sympathetic nervous system, body temp, osmolarity, reprod, food intake
• Interacts with limbic system to influence behavior and emotions
• Influences cardiovascular control center in medulla oblongata
• Secretes trophic hormones that control release of hormones from anterior pituitary gland

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3
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Regulation of cardiac and respiratory function, sleep, eating, consciousness

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4
Q

The Limbic System

A
  • Emotion, memory, and learning. Primitive brain – necessary for survival
    • Control of functions necessary for self preservation and species preservation (fear, anger, eating, sex)
    • Regulate autonomic and endocrine function, particularly in response to emotional stimuli
    • Cingulate gyrus, Amgdyla
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5
Q

Sensation

A

bottom-up processing, sensory receptors receive and relay outside stimuli

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6
Q

Perception

A

top-down processing, brain organizes and interprets information, puts into context
(depends on sensory input and physiological state (e.g., alertness)

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7
Q

Somatic Sensory system

A

specific receptor structures, intracellular amplification of signal

Somatic Sensory system

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8
Q

Sensory Coding

A

Sense organs are filters – highly selective and sensitive to specific types of stim

Somatic Sensory system

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9
Q

Simple receptor

A

neurons with free nerve endings (somatosensory)

Somatic Sensory system

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10
Q

Specialized sense receptors

A

non-neural. Release NT onto sensory neurons

Somatic Sensory system

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11
Q

Complex receptor

A

nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue capsules

Somatic Sensory system

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12
Q

Transduction

A

stimulus energy transformed into neural electrical activity
Each sensory receptor cell transduces a particular form of stimulus into a membrane current that changes the membrane potential of that cell (graded potentials

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13
Q

Graded potentials

A

changes in membrane potential that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none
• Tend to occur in dendrites or soma of neuron
• Size and duration dependent on size and duration of stimulus
• Arise from the summation of the individual actions of ligand-gated ion channel proteins, and decrease
over time and space
• They do not typically involve voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels
• Decay with time and distance

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14
Q

Spatial and Temporal Summation

A

adaptation

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15
Q

Adaptation

A

Reduction in sensitivity due to a constant stimulus, Peripheral and Central adaptation

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16
Q

Topographical organization

A

point to point representation of a sensory surface in the brain
• Somatotopy
• Size of sensory input due to density of input and importance (index finger more important than elbow)

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17
Q

Somatic Senses

A

touch, proprioception, temperature, nociception - different than other senses
• Receptors are widely distributed throughout body
• Receptors respond to different stimuli (touch, temp, pain, body position)
• 3 sensations detected by skin
• Mechanoreceptors - Vibration, soft touch, pressure (skin, bv’s, organs)
• Thermoreceptors - Temperature
• Nociceptors - Pain: mechanical, chemical, thermal
Mechanically gated ion channels
Vibration/touch information in separate pathway from pain/temp

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18
Q

Receptive Fields

A

vary in size (smaller receptive fields = greater acuity (two-point discrimination))
• Higher density of mechanoreceptors on fingertip (small receptive fields) - more brain tissue devoted to each square mm of fingertip
• Character of receptive field changes as it passes through pathway
• Neurons respond to separate aspects of stimuli (shape, size, texture) but then combine them (within
and between different senses) to identify objects

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19
Q

Dermatomes

A

an area of skin that is mainly supplied by a single spinal nerve
• Damage to single dorsal root ganglion - sensation is not usually lost in that dermatome because of overlapping segments

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20
Q

Shingles

A

Herpes zoster virus reactivated in neurons of a single dorsal root ganglion – leads to increased excitability in sensory neurons, spontaneous firing

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21
Q

Referred pain

A

Multiple nociceptors from different regions converge on the same ascending tract in the spinal cord, Somatic pain is more common than visceral pain so brain interprets signals from viscera as skin pain

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22
Q

Agnosia

A

Occurs with damage to posterior parietal cortex

• Astereoagnosia (tactile agnosia) – cannot recognize common objects by feeling them

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23
Q

Phantom limbs

A

Somatosensory cortex undergoes substantial reorganization after the loss of input
• Mirror training
Touch vs. Pain pathways
Modulation of pain

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24
Q

Vision

A

Stimuli = Light , Electromagnetic radiation visible to our eyes (Wavelength, frequency, amplitude)
– Light enters the eye - Focused on retina by the lens
– Photoreceptors transduce light energy - Electrical signal – Electrical signal -Processed through neural pathways
Light is focused on retina by Refraction - Bending of light rays from one medium to another
– Cornea collects and bends light so it converges on back of eye
– Focal Distance – distance from reflective surface to retina

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25
Q

Accommodation

A

by the lens - the process by which the eye adjusts the shape of the lens to keep objects in focus via contraction/relaxation of ciliary muscle (for 9 m and closer)

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26
Q

Presbyopia (old eye)

A

Loss of elasticity – lens is less able to change shape

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27
Q

Hyperopia (far-sightedness)

A

occurs when focal point falls behind the retina

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28
Q

Myopia (near-sightedness)

A

occurs when focal point falls in front of the retina

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29
Q

Macular Degeneration

A

Progressive destruction of macula
• Common eye condition in older people
• Leading cause of blindness in older adults
• Fine points in these images sent to retina are not clear - The picture is there, but the fine points are lost

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30
Q

Visual Acuity

A

Ability to distinguish two nearby points

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31
Q

Two types of photoreceptors

A

Rods and cones (red, green, blue)

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32
Q

Cones

A

concentrated in center of retina –

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33
Q

fovea

A

(in center of macula) - comprises less than 1% of retinal size
but takes up over 50% of the visual cortex in the brain

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34
Q

Color blindness

A

Loss of one type of cone, X-chromosome-linked

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35
Q

Regional differences in retina

A

Varies from fovea to retinal periphery

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36
Q

Central retina

A

More cones, Greater acuity

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37
Q

Peripheral retina

A

Higher ratio of rods to cones, Higher ratio of photoreceptors to ganglion cells, More sensitive to light

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38
Q

Fovea VPFG

A

Visual field:Front
Photoreceptor:Cones
Functions:Color Acuity
Ganglion ratio: 1:1

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39
Q

Periphery VPFG

A

Visual field: Edges
Photoreceptor: Rods
Functions: Night, Motion
Ganglion ratio: Many:1

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40
Q

Visual pathway in retina

A

Light passes through ganglion and bipolar cells before reaching photoreceptors (inside out)

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41
Q

Photoreceptors

A

deepest layer, converts light into nerve impulses

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42
Q

Bipolar cells - Antagonistic center-surround receptive fields

A

The receptive fields of bipolar cells are circular - the center and the surrounding area of each circle work in opposite ways: a ray of light that strikes the center of the field has the opposite effect from one that strikes the area surrounding it (known as the “surround”)

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43
Q

Ganglion cells

A

have Center-Surround Receptive Fields

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44
Q

Transduction

A

Light is converted into electrical signals in photoreceptor cells

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45
Q

Rhodopsin

A

Bleaching

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46
Q

Opsin

A

protein that mediates the conversion of a photon of light into an electrochemical signal

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47
Q

Retinal

A

vitamin A derivative that absorbs light

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48
Q

Dark-Light Adaptation

A

Dilation of pupils, Regeneration of unbleached rhodopsin

• Calcium regulation - Calcium concentration changes in photoreceptors

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49
Q

Central visual pathway

A

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus is first level of visual processing that what we see is influenced by what we feel
• Receptive fields of LGN neurons: Identical to the ganglion cells that feed them
• Nonretinal Inputs to the LGN - Primary visual cortex provides 80% of the synaptic input to LGN

50
Q

Cortical Receptive fields

A

sensitive to spatial orientation of the stimulus

51
Q

Binocular Vision

A

combines information from both eyes to create depth perception

52
Q

Parallel processing

A
  • Perception combines individually identified properties of visual objects
    – Achieved by simultaneous, parallel processing of several visual pathways
53
Q

Vestibular System

A

Balance, equilibrium, posture, head, body, eye movement

54
Q

Otolith organs:

A

Detect changes in head angle and liner acceleration – otoliths displaced and activate hair cells

55
Q

Semicircular canals

A

head rotation
• Use hair cells, like auditory system, to detect changes

Push-Pull Activation of Semicircular Canals – 3 semicircular canals on one side
• Helps sense all possible head-rotation angles
– Each paired with another on opposite side of head (one EPSP, one IPSP)

56
Q

Vestibulo-occular Reflex

A

Senses rotations of head, commands compensatory movement of eyes in opposite direction
• Stabilizes image on retina during head movement

57
Q

Motion sickness

A

disagreement between the visual and vestibular system

58
Q

Meniere’s Disease

A

disorder of the inner ear that can lead to dizzy spells (vertigo) and hearing loss. In most cases, Meniere’s disease affects only one ear

59
Q

Taste and Smell

A

-the principal systems for distinguishing flavorstactile, thermal, and nociceptive
-sensory input from the oral mucosa contributes to food quality
• Saliva also is an important factor in maintaining acuity of taste receptor cells

60
Q

Anosmia

A

loss of smell, taste due to head trauma, resp infection, age

61
Q

have strong and direct connections to limbic system -the olfactory bulb is one of
the structures of limbic system

A

both taste and smell

62
Q

the olfactory bulb

A

is one of

the structures of limbic system

63
Q

its membrane potential changes
(Receptor or graded potential)

Depolarizing receptor potential cause Ca++ to enter the cytoplasm - Triggers the release of NT

A

When taste receptor is activated by the appropriate chemical

64
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

specialized for acquiring information about the chemical environment

65
Q

Gustatory (taste) receptors

A

dissolved molecules, Constant turnover of cells

66
Q

Taste receptor cells

A

Not neurons, Form synapses with the endings of gustatory afferent axons near the bottom of the taste bud

Each food activates a different combination of basic tastes

67
Q

Voltage-gated channel proteins for Na , K & Ca are

A

present in the plasma membrane with the K -

gated channel proteins located in larger numbers on the apical membrane of the taste cells

68
Q

Microvilli from each taste cell

A

project into the taste pore which communicate with the dissolved solutes
on the surface of the tongue

69
Q

Olfactory (smell) receptors

A

airborne molecules

70
Q

The perception of odors

A

begins with inhalation and transport of volatile aromas to the olfactory mucosa

71
Q

Each olfactory receptor

A

has a long, thin dendrite that terminates in a knob at the surface

Several thin cilia emerge from knob – these are covered with mucous

72
Q

Molecules that enter the nasal cavity

A

are absorbed into the mucous layer

73
Q

Olfactory receptors

A

are neurons

74
Q

Olfactory receptors Only neurons

A

in the nervous system that are replaced regularly throughout life - Every 4-8 weeks

75
Q

Aging and smell olfactory

A

lose sense of smell and ability to discriminate between smells
• # of fibers in the olfactory bulb, along with olfactory receptors decrease

76
Q

Learning and Memory

A

Memory-An organism’s ability to store, retain, and subsequently recall information

77
Q

Learning

A

The process of acquiring memories/procedures

78
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

A candidate cellular mechanism or memory and learning formation

79
Q

Brain regions involved in learning

A

Hippocampus – Declarative memory, episodic memory, semantic memory
• Prefrontal cortex – working memory
• Striatum – procedural memory
• Cerebral cortex – perceptual memory, semantic memory, priming
• Amygdala – emotional memory
• Cerebellum – conditioned timing

80
Q

Hippocampus and Learning

A

Declarative memory, episodic memory, semantic memory

81
Q

Prefrontal cortex – and learning

A

working memory

82
Q

Striatum and learning

A

procedural memory

83
Q

Cerebral cortex and learning

A

perceptual memory, semantic memory, priming

84
Q

Amygdala and learning

A

emotional memory

85
Q

Cerebellum and learning

A

conditioned timing

86
Q

Long-term memeory has two broad types

A
  • Explicit - Declarative

* Implicit – Not-decalrative

87
Q

Long-term memeory

A

Increases or decreases in the strength of synaptic connections can change the flow of information
change the flow of information within neuronal circuits.

88
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

The ability of a synapse to change its strength (short- and long-term)

89
Q
  • Potentiation

* Depression

A

Various mechanisms:

  1. Change in number/functionality of postsynaptic receptors (short & long term) 2. Change in amount of transmitter released (short-term)
  2. Morphological (physical) changes (axonal sprouting, spine size (long-term) 4. Translational changes in receptor number (long-term
90
Q

Types of Learning

A
  • AssociativeLearning -
  • Adaptive Learning - Interactive, reinforcement learning (think gaming)
  • Imitation Learning
  • Supervised Learning
  • Motor Learning
91
Q

AssociativeLearning

A

Hebb’s rule, multimodal

92
Q

Adaptive Learning

A

Interactive, reinforcement learning (think gaming)

93
Q

Imitation Learning

A

Learn from others (mirroring)

94
Q

Supervised Learning

A

Developmental learning within circuits

95
Q

Motor Learning

A

Procedural learning

96
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A

Efferent output from the CNS is divided into 2 pathways: Autonomic and Somatic nervous systems

97
Q

• ANS – controls

A

Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle, Glands

98
Q

ANS mostly

A

Mostly involuntary, contains efferent neurons that modulate the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle, gland, lymphoid, and some adipose tissue activity

99
Q

ANS Works

A

with endocrine and behavioral state systems to maintain homeostasis, Regulated by hypothalamus

100
Q

ANS Sympathetic division

A

“fight or flight” activity

101
Q

ANS Parasympathetic division –

A

Rest and Digest (also Repro) functions in relaxed states

102
Q

Most internal organs have antagonistic control - 1 autonomic branch is excitatory and other inhibitory

A

Effects depends on situation and which part of ANS is in charge (stress/maintenance)

103
Q

Most of the time, Parasympathetic NS

A

is dominant

104
Q

Most ANS response are NOT

A

all-out responses, Activating one pathway does not necessarily activate
them all

105
Q

Disynaptic connections

A

Both require 2 synapses at ganglia (group of nerve cell bodies)

106
Q

2 types of compunds involved in ANS

A
  • Neurotransmitters (NT) – made and released from neurons, travels across a synapse
  • Hormones - released by a gland
107
Q

Neurotransmitters (NT)

A

made and released from neurons, travels across a synapse

108
Q

Hormones

A

released by a gland

109
Q

Symp – most release

A

norepinephrine (adrenergic)

110
Q

Parasymp – release

A

acetylcholine

111
Q

Termination of NT action

A

Diffuses away
• Metabolized by enzymes
• Actively transported into cells

112
Q

Signal Molecules can have Different Effects in Different Tissues

A

depends on receptors (Alpha and Beta)

113
Q

Sym NS ↑

A
  • ↑ production of ATP
  • Dilation of the pupils
  • ↑ heart rate and blood pressure
  • Dilation of the airways
  • Constriction of blood vessels that supply the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract
  • ↑ blood supply to the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, liver and adipose tissue
  • ↑ glycogenolysis ↑ blood glucose
  • ↑ lipolysis
114
Q

Sym NS Divergent

A

may synapse with 20 or more postganglionic neurons, effects widespread (bat signal)

115
Q

Sym NS region

A

thoracic and columnar region of spinal cord, highly branched - Influences many organs

116
Q

since the SYM NS is highly branched

A

• Even a small response can trigger a reaction in many different places (why you can feel exhausted after stress)

117
Q

Parasym NS region

A

– Craniosacral, Parasym few branches - Localized effect

118
Q

Parasym NS releases

A

• Acetylcholine released, stimulates effector, then immediately broken down by Acetylocholinesterase

119
Q

Parasym NS ↑

A

Good safety mechanism for inhibitory regulation
• Conserve and restore body energy
• ↑ digestive and urinary function
• ↓ body functions that support physical activity
Autonomic Tone, Autonomic reflexes Chronic stress

120
Q

What Activates sympathetic nervous system

A

Hypothalamus

BIO 353 (2 decks)

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