Studies Biological Approach

Question 1

Maguire et al. (2000) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 1

Localisation, Neuroplasticity, Neuron, Neural networks, Neural pruning, Techniques, Research method (quasi)

Explain hippocampus + function.
Explain localisation of function
Explain anterior/posterior, how the brain is divided.
The posterior hippocampus: previously learned information
The anterior hippocampus: encoding new environmental layouts

Question 2

Maguire et al. (2000) Aim

Answer 2

Investigate 1) navigational experience and the role played by the hippocampus in humans.

2) Whether the healthy human brain can undergo “plastic” (structural) changes in response to extensive navigational experience
(localisation of function)

Question 3

Maguire et al. (2000) PPS

Answer 3

Experimental group:
16 right-handed male licensed London taxi drivers (driving for more than 1.5 years, mean time as taxi driver 14.3 years (1.5-42)

Control group:
50 healthy right-handed males (non taxi drivers).

Mean age + age range the same (M=44 years, 33-61 years)

Question 4

Maguire et al. (2000) Procedure

Answer 4

An MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan was made.

24 sagittal slices were taken from each participant. 6 from the anterior part of the hippocampus, 12 from the body of the hippocampus, and 6 from the posterior part of the hippocampus.

For each slice, the number of pixels of the hippocampus was counted.

Question 5

Maguire et al. (2000) Results

Answer 5

No difference in the overall volume of the hippocampi between taxi drives and control was found.

The volumes of taxi drivers’ posterior hippocampus were significantly larger than controls.

Controls’ anterior hippocampus had significantly larger volumes than taxi drivers.

Increased gray matter volume in left and right hippocampi of taxi drivers

Researchers found that there was a positive correlation between time as a taxi driver and volume of the posterior hippocampus (r=0.5)

Negative correlation between time as a taxi driver and the volume of the anterior hippocampus (r=-0.6)

Question 6

Maguire et al. (2000) Conclusion

Answer 6

Human spatial memory & navigational experience are stored in the posterior hippocampus (localisation of function)

The “mental map” of the city of London is stored in the posterior hippocampus - function: to store large-scale spatial information

There is an indication of local plasticity in the structure of the healthy adult human brain as the function of increasing exposure to an environmental stimulus

The structure of the brain changes in response to environmental demand

Question 7

Maguire et al. (2000) Evaluation (ethical considerations etc)

Question 8

Draganski et al. (2004) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 8

Neuroplasticity, Research method (true experiment)

Explain grey matter
Explain neuroplasticity
Explain MRI scan

Question 9

Draganski et al. (2004) Aim

Answer 9

To investigate possible learning-induced structural plasticity of the adult human brain, as well as to investigate functional and structural correlates of learning and memory

Question 10

Draganski et al. (2004) PPS

Answer 10

38 medical students (21 female, 17 male). M=24. Average grade of the group matched the average grade of the medical exam that year

Question 11

Draganski et al. (2004) Procedure

Answer 11

Randomly divided into two groups: jugglers & non-jugglers. Jugglers spent 3 months learning a classic juggling routine with 3 balls, followed by 3 months which they were instructed to stop practicing. Control group never practiced juggling.

MRI performed in both groups: before experiment, 3 months in, and 6 months in. MRI at start of study served as a base rate for grey matter and brain structure.

Question 12

Draganski et al. (2004) Results

Answer 12

From baseline scans, they found no significant regional difference in grey matter between the two conditions.

3 months in MRI, the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of grey matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres (area associated with visual memory).

6 month scan (3 months of no practice), many were unable to carry out the routine, the amount of grey matter in these parts of the brain had decreased. Jugglers still had more grey matter in these areas than the first brain scan.

No differences in brain over the duration of the study in the non-juggling sample

Question 13

Draganski et al. (2004) Conclusion

Answer 13

Grey matter grows in the brain in response to environmental demands (learning) and shrinks in the absence of stimulation (lack of practice). This shows that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between learning and brain structure

Question 14

Draganski et al (2004) Evaluation (ethical considerations etc)

Question 15

Meyer et al. (2006) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 15

Techniques (PET), Neurotransmitters/Neurotransmission

Explain MAO Oxidase-A (MAO-A) (enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters in the synapse, such as serotonin)

Explain the serotonin hypothesis (depression (behaviour) being caused by low levels of serotonin (neurotransmitter)

Explain neurotransmitters/neurotransmisson

Explain PET-scan

Question 16

Meyer et al. (2006) Aim

Answer 16

To investigate whether MAO-A levels in the brain are elevated during untreated depression

Question 17

Meyer et al. (2006) PPS

Answer 17

17 healthy + 17 depressed individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD), recruited from general practitioners & psychiatrists. All participants were otherwise healthy & nonsmoking. Depressed individuals had been medication free for at least 5 months.

Question 18

Meyer et al. (2006) Procedure

Answer 18

PET-scan were made to measure amount of MAO-A in different regions of the brain (prefrontal cortex, thalamus, midbrain hippocampus etc). PET monitors glucose metabolism in the brain. Patients were injected with a harmless dose of radioactive glucose. The scans produce a coloured map of brain activity

Question 19

Meyer et al. (2006) Results

Answer 19

The MAO-A levels were significantly elevated in every brain region assessed. The MAO-A was elevated on average by 34% throughout the brain during major depression.

Question 20

Meyer et al. (2006) Conclusion

Question 21

Meyer et al. (2006) Evaluation (ethical considerations etc)

Question 22

Hori & Kunugi (2012) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 22

Neurotransmitters/Neurotransmission, Agonist, Synapses (how these relate to excitatory and/or inhibitory neurotransmitters)

Explain agonist
Explain neurotransmission/neurotransmitters

Question 23

Hori & Kunugi (2012) Aim

Answer 23

To examine the efficacy and safety of pramipexole (a dopamine agonist as an adjunctive treatment in patients with treatment-resistant depression

Question 24

Hori & Kunugi (2012) PPS

Answer 24

17 patients (7 males, 10 females M=36.2) with MDD assessed with DSM-IV who failed to respond to previous treatment with SSRI

Question 25

Hori & Kunugi (2012) Procedure

Answer 25

Patients visited the hospital every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. Depression was assessed on the Hamilton rating scale 21-item version (HDRS-21). Pramipexole was added to patients’ current medication.

Question 26

Hori & Kunugi (2012) Results

Answer 26

Significant decrease in depression symptoms after 12 weeks (19.4-7.2). No serious side effects were observed

Question 27

Hori & Kunugi (2012) Conclusion

Answer 27

The findings suggest that pramipexole (dopamine agonist) therapy might be an effective treatment for treatment-resistant depressed patients.

Question 28

Hori & Kunugi (2012) Evaluation

Question 29

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 29

Antagonists, Ethics (consent form, protection from harm)

Explain antagonists
Explain consent form (if it is ethics)
Explain protection from harm (if it is ethics)

Question 30

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) Aim

Answer 30

To test the hypothesis that LSD produces dreamlike waking imagery, and that this imagery depends on 5-HT2A receptor activation and is related to subjective drug effects

Question 31

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) PPS

Answer 31

25 healthy university students or with university degree (19 males, 6 females M=25.3)

Question 32

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) Procedure

Answer 32

7 hours after drug administration, participants performed an audio-recorded guided mental imagery task during three drug conditions: placebo, LSD (100 mcg orally), and LSD together with the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (40 mg orally). Cognitive bizarreness of guided mental imagery reports was quantified as a standardised formal measure of dream mentation. State of consciousness was elevated using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) questionnaire

Question 33

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) Results

Answer 33

LSD, compared with placebo, significantly increased cognitive bizarreness. The LSD-induced increase in cognitive bizarreness was positively correlated with the LSD induced loss of self-boundaries and cognitive control. Both LSD-induced increases in cognitive bizarreness and changes in state of consciousness were fully blocked by ketanserin (5-HT2A receptor antagonist)

Question 34

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) Conclusion

Answer 34

These findings show that stimulation of the 5-HT2A receptor is a key mechanism of action mediating both the LSD-induced changes in subjective experience and the dreamlike effects of LSD. LSD (a serotonin and dopamine receptor agonist) produced mental imagery comparable to that reported in dreams, primarily via activation of the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist (ketanserin) these effects were eliminated.

Question 35

Kraehnmann et al. (2017) Evaluation

Question 36

Andersen et al. (1994) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 36

Ethics (deception: placebos)

Explain deception
Explain placebos
Explain double-blind (When a double-blind technique is used, neither researcher nor participants know who is in which condition)

Question 37

Andersen et al. (1994) Aim

Answer 37

To investigate the efficacy and safety of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) citalopram in treating post stroke depression

Question 38

Andersen et al. (1994) PPS

Answer 38

66 depressed stroke patients (age 25-80) entered trial 2-52 weeks after stroke

Question 39

Andersen et al. (1994) Procedure

Answer 39

Participants assigned to equally sized treatment and placebo groups. A 6 week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was undertaken. In a placebo-controlled trial, one group is given the real treatment and another an inert substance. The Hamilton Depression Scale was used to measure the amount of depression. The UKU side effect rating scale was used to measure unwanted side-effects. The initial level of depression was comparable in the two groups (mean baseline hamilton depression scored, 19.4 and 18.9, respectively). Demographic parameters were also comparable in the two groups.

Question 40

Andersen et al. (1994) Results

Answer 40

Significantly greater improvement was seen in the patients treated with citalopram (10 to 40 mg/d) for 3 and 6 weeks. The difference was larger when patients who dropped out were excluded. Half of the 28 patients who entered the trial 2 to 6 weeks after stroke recovered within 1 month, independent of the treatment given.

Question 41

Andersen et al. (1994) Conclusion

Question 42

Andersen et al. (1994) Evaluation

Question 43

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 43

Hormones and behaviour, Research method (field experiment), Ethics (deception)

Explain testosterone (if hormones and behaviour)
Explain field experiment (if research method)
Explain deception (if ethics)

Question 44

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) Aim

Answer 44

To investigate the hypothesis that physical risk-taking by young men increases in the presence of an attractive female; and that increased risk-taking in the presence of an attractive woman might be induced by elevated testosterone

Question 45

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) PPS

Answer 45

96 young adult male skateboarders recruited in skateboard parks in Australia
mean age of 21.58

Question 46

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) Procedure

Answer 46

43 participants were assigned to a male experimenter condition and 53 were assigned to a female experimenter condition. testing was conducted between 2:00pm and 6:00pm to control for variation in testosterone concentrations.
skateboarders were asked to chose one easy trick and one difficult trick they had not yet mastered which they attempted 10 times each while being video-taped by the male or female experimenter (blind to the hypothesis).
attractiveness of the female was established by 20 independent male raters.
saliva samples were collected at the conclusion of the experiment to monitor testosterone levels.

Question 47

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) Results

Answer 47

participants took greater risks on the difficult tricks in the presence of the female experimenter. as predicted, testosterone levels were significantly higher among men who skateboarded in front of the female experimenter. the analysis suggests that increased risk-taking in front of the female experimenter was partially mediated by increased testosterone levels

Question 48

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) Conclusion

Answer 48

Young men take greater physical risks when in the presence of an attractive woman and that increases in circulating testosterone partially explain this effect.
researchers also suggest that the prefrontal cortex, specifically the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) might play an intermediary role in these processes since the area is involved in decision making under risk.
higher levels of testosterone might impair the functioning of the VMPFC, leading to higher risk-taking behavior which may hay an evolutionary origin to attract a beautiful mate.

Question 49

Ronay & von Hippel (2010) Evaluation

Answer 49

High ecological validity (participants in their own environment)

the study was mostly unethical:
the participants did not receive informed consent and they were also deceived.
as the study was filmed and published, the skaters’ identities did not remain confidential but they were debriefed at the end of the experiment.
since were encouraged to complete difficult tricks on their skateboards, they were not protected from harm.

Alternative explanation: given that the participants were video-taped, they may have felt more pressure than they would if they were just observed.
as the sexuality of the skateboarders was not taken into account, the increased risk-taking may have been influenced by external factors and confounding variables

the study was culturally biased because the participants were recruited from skateboard parks in Australia (their ethnic/cultural background was not revealed)

Applications: enables researchers to evaluate the relationship between testosterone and risk-taking.
explains the inherent bad decision making that classifies male behavior.

How does this study demonstrate the effect of hormones on human behaviour?: as increased testosterone levels were measured at the end of the experiment, it can be concluded that testosterone influences risk-taking, dominance, and competition (aggressive behaviors)

Question 50

Nave et al. (2017) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 50

Hormones and behaviour, Research method (true experiment), Ethics (consent)

Explain testosterone
Explain decision making processes in humans (researchers hypothesise that testosterone biases decision-making towards rapid, system 1 processing)
Explain true experiment (if research method)
Explain consent (if ethics)

Question 51

Nave et al. (2017) Aim

Answer 51

to test how testosterone influences decision-making processes in humans

Question 52

Nave et al. (2017) PPS

Answer 52

243 male college students

Question 53

Nave et al. (2017) Procedure

Answer 53

participants were randomly allocated to two conditions: testosterone or placebo. they were to rub a gel (containing either testosterone or placebo) over their shoulders, upper arms, and chest. 4 1/2 hours later (enough time for testosterone levels to peak) they embarked on a series of tests after confirming that the participants who used the gel with testosterone had higher testosterone levels than those with placebo via saliva samples.
they completed the three-item Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) which evaluates a person’s ability to override quick and intuitive, but likely incorrect, judgments through deliberate/careful thought.
the volunteers were told that they would be paid 1 dollar for each correct answer, with a bonus of 2 dollars for three correct answers and they could take as long as they like.

Question 54

Nave et al. (2017) Results

Answer 54

the researchers found that men who had received testosterone performed worse on the CRT test.
overall, they came up with 20% fewer correct answers than those who received placebo.
when the participants who received testosterone gave correct answers, they tended to do some more slowly.
the effect remained after controlling after controlling age, mood, math skills, whether the participants believed they received placebo or testosterone, and the effects of 14 additional hormones.

Question 55

Nave et al. (2017) Conclusion

Answer 55

the findings suggest that a mechanism underlying testosterone’s diverse effects on humans’ judgments and decision-making and provide novel, clear, and testable predictions

Question 56

Nave et al. (2017) Evaluation

Answer 56

Laboratory (true) experiment

strengths:
cause and effect relationship
internal validity

Limitations:
total control = impossible
artificial (low ecological validity because this would not happen in a realistic setting)

Alternative explanations: as the questions of the CRT were standardized, the difficulty of the questions may have influenced the participants’ ability to answer them correctly because each person has different cognitive abilities

Ethical considerations: the study was ethical because there was informed consent, they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they were not deceived, and could withdraw while they were protected from mental and physical harm

Applications: the results of the study create insight into the context and nature of male cognitive (dis)ability, enhancing the implications that men are more irrational compared to women (encourages gender separation in classrooms?), and enables researchers to understand the underlying reason for the surge in the testosterone-replacement-therapy industry

How does this study demonstrate the effect of hormones on behaviour?: as the results of the study suggest that males are less rational under the influence of testosterone, it implies that the hormone makes men prone to making more rapid and less evaluated decisions

Question 57

Zhou et al. (2014) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 57

Pheromones and behaviour

Question 58

Zhou et al. (2014) Aim

Answer 58

to test the qualification of the two steroids as sex pheromones (AND, signaling maleness; EST, signaling femaleness) by examining whether communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner influences human sexual behavior

Question 59

Zhou et al. (2014) PPS

Answer 59

96 participants
24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual women, 24 gay men, 24 lesbian women (the homosexual female group included self-reported bisexual females)

Question 60

Zhou et al. (2014) Procedure

Answer 60

participants were asked to watch stick figures walking on a screen and to determine their gender.
participants were exposed to the smell of cloves in identical jars which they inhaled.
first condition: cloves were mixed with AND
second condition: cloves were mixed with EST
control condition: only cloves were used

Question 61

Zhou et al. (2014) Results

Answer 61

findings showed that smelling AND biased heterosexual females and homosexual males, but not heterosexual males, toward perceiving the walkers as more masculine.
by contrast, smelling EST systematically biases heterosexual males and lesbian women toward perceiving the walkers as more feminine.
the results from bisexual and homosexual females fell in between those of heterosexual males and females.

Question 62

Zhou et al. (2014) Conclusion

Answer 62

pheromones influence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner.
the study is providing the first direct evidence that the two human steroids communicate opposite gender information that is differentially effective to the two sex groups based on their sexual orientation

Question 63

Zhou et al. (2014) Evaluation

Answer 63

Laboratory (true) experiment

Strengths:
cause and effect relationship
internal validity

Limitations
total control = impossible
artificial (cannot occur in real life setting, therefore low ecological validity)

Alternative explanations: due to the influence of cultural norms, the participants may have expressed their gender perception of the stick figure based on what makes them fit in with the expectations of society (social desirability bias)

Ethical considerations: the study was ethical because there was informed consent, they were debriefed, their identities remained confidential, they were not deceived, and could withdraw while they were protected from mental and physical harm

Applications: the results of the study create greater insight into the effects of potential human pheromones, catalyzing further research and curiosity of their impact on human behavior

How does this study demonstrate pheromones and their effect on behaviour?: since the results suggest that AND favors straight females and gay males to perceiving the stick figure as more male, whereas EST favors straight males and gay females to perceive the stick figure as feminine, the putative pheromones have a supposed effect on communication of gender in a sex-specific manner

Question 64

Hare et al. (2017)

Question 65

Hare et al. (2017) Aim

Answer 65

To investigate the effects of the putative (=thought to be” or “supposed”) sex pheromones AND and EST on perceptions of facial gender, attractiveness and unfaithfulness

Question 66

Hare et al. (2017) PPS

Answer 66

94 self-reported heterosexual, nonsmoking, adult Caucasian participants (43 male and 51 female; mean age = 23.7)

Question 67

Hare et al. (2017) Procedure

Answer 67

Participants completed two computer-based tasks twice, on two consecutive days, exposed to a control scent on one day and a putative pheromone (AND or EST) on the other. The first task tested the perceptions of gender, and the second task assessed perceptions of attractiveness and unfaithfulness. In the first task (lasting approximately 2-5 min), 46 participants (24 male, 22 female) indicated the gender (male or female) of five genderneutral facial morphs. In the second task, 94 participants (43 male, 51 female) rated photographs of opposite-sex faces, each on a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high), for attractiveness and probable sexual unfaithfulness. Second task lasted approximately 10-25 min.

Question 68

Hare et al. (2017) Results

Answer 68

Exposure to AND or EST had no effect on gender perception. Exposure to the putative pheromones had no effect on either attractiveness or unfaithfulness ratings.

Question 69

Hare et al. (2017) Conclusion

Answer 69

These results are consistent with those of other experimental studies and reviews that suggest AND ans EST are unlikely to be human pheromones. The double-blind nature of the current study lends increased support to this conclusion. If human sex pheromones affect our judgements of gender, attractiveness or unfaithfulness from faces, they are unlikely to be AND or EST

Question 70

Hare et al. (2017) Evaluation

Answer 70

Strengths:
double-blind procedure

Limitations:
lacking ecological validity due to unnatural concentration of steroids and lab environment

Question 71

Caspi et al. (2003) areas of usage + words to explain

Answer 71

Genes and behaviour, Ethics (confidentiality, informed consent)

Question 72

Caspi et al. (2003) Aim

Answer 72

to investigate whether the short allele in the 5-HTT gene in a combination with stressful life events increases the risk of depression in an individual.
to determine whether there is evidence for a gene-environment interaction for a mutation of the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT)

Question 73

Caspi et al. (2003) PPS

Answer 73

a sample of 847 Caucasian non-Maori 26-year-olds from New Zealand.
all were members of a cohort that had been assessed for mental health on an every-other-year basis until they were 21 (life history calendar method)

Question 74

Caspi et al. (2003) Procedure

Answer 74

participants were genotyped and divided into three groups based on their 5-HTT alleles: group 1 had two short alleles, group 2 had one short and one long allele, group 3 had two long alleles. the mutation of the 5-HTT gene has the shorter alleles.
the participants were asked to fill in a stressful life events questionnaire which asked them about the frequency of 14 different events (financial, employment, health, and relationship stressors) between ages of 21 and 26.
they were also assessed for depression.
(17% met the criteria for MDD; 58% female, 42% male)

Question 75

Caspi et al. (2003) Results

Answer 75

people who had inherited one or more short versions of the allele demonstrated more symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in response to stressful life events. the effect was strongest for those with three or more stressful life events. simply inheriting the gene was not enough to lead to depression, but the genes’ interaction with stressful life events increased one’s likelihood of developing depression. the same pattern was observed when the relationship between maltreatment (age 3-11) and depressive episodes was analysed. carriers of short alleles who had been maltreated were much more likely to experience depressive episodes

Question 76

Caspi et al. (2003) Conclusion

Answer 76

the findings partially explain why certain individuals develop depression whereas others do not. an increase in stressful life events leads to a higher probability of suicide attempts and major depression for participants with short alleles.
(vulnerability + trigger = MDD)

Question 77

Caspi et al. (2003) Evaluation

Answer 77

Quasi (natural) experiment (measured the relationship between stressful life events, depression, and genotype)

Strengths:
high ecological validity

Limitations:
limited control
ethical problems

Alternative explanations: as information about life-events was self-reported, and because every individual experiences and interprets similar problems to varied extents, the stress may play more or less of a role in the development of depression in certain individuals (makes results less reliable)

Ethical considerations: the study is mostly ethical because it can be assumed that there was informed consent, they were not deceived and they were not debriefed, whereas the study’s recognition as one of the most groundbreaking studies in genetic research does not ensure 100% confidentiality. furthermore, as the study did not control their exposure to mental and physical harm

Applications: the findings of the study are useful when treating depression, developing depression medication, and attempting to prevent depression in those individuals who are prone as the study illustrates its relationship with genotype and life stress

How does this study demonstrate the effect of genes and genetic similarities on human behaviour?: as it was found that the participants with short versions of the allele of 5-HTT demonstrated symptoms of depression and potential suicide in response to stressful life events, the study reveals the cause and effect relationship between genetics and the environment, exposing the ‘recipe’ for the degradation of mental health

Question 78

Kendler et al. (2006) areas of usage + words to explain

Question 79

Kendler et al. (2006) Aim

Answer 79

To investigate the heritability of depression

Question 80

Kendler et al. (2006) PPS

Answer 80

42 000 twins from Sweden’s national twin registry. Twins born between 1886 and 1958. Only twins whose zygosity could be verified were used in the study.

Question 81

Kendler et al. (2006) Procedure

Question 82

Kendler et al. (2006) Results

Answer 82

Researchers concluded that the heritability of depression was estimated to be 38%. They found that the average concordance rate for MZ male twins was 31% and for MZ female twin 44%. While for DZ twins it was 11% and 16%. The fact that the rate for MZ twins is so far below 100% indicates that depression may be the result of genetic predisposition.

Question 83

Kendler et al. (2006) Conclusion

Question 84

Kendler et al. (2006) Evaluation