Structure of carbohydrates and introduction to metabolism Flashcards by Taylor Nunes

“keto” or “aldo” in carbohydrate nomenclature

Ketose- Ketone on its most oxidized end

Aldose- Aldehyde on its most oxidized end

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single monomer in a carbohydrate

Monosaccharide

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double monomers in a carbohydrate

Disaccharide

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3-10 monomers in a carbohydrate

Oligosaccharide

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greater than 10 monomers in a carbohydrate

Polysaccharide

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Linkages between carbohydrate sugars

Glycosidic bond (covalent linkage)

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Chair conformation is the most _____ conformation regarding _____

Stable

Hexose rings

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Axial vs equatorial

Axial- stick straight down

Equatorial- project outward form the ring (most stable position for larger groups)

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Three key monosaccharides: common names and their nomenclature

Glucose (aldohexose), fructose (ketohexose), galactose (aldoheose)

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Sugar that is crucial to nicleic acid synthesis, common name and nomenclature

Ribose (aldopentose)

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In human metabolism, most sugars exist as which form of optical isomer?

D form

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Maltose

Glucose + glucose

α-linkage

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Lactose

Galactose + glucose

β-linkage

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Sucrose

Glucose + fructose

α-, β-linkage

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Scurvy is caused by

Prolonged Vitamin C deficiency

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Sugar acids

Monosaccharide derivate
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) - required for collagen synthesis
glucuronic acid - reacts with bilirubin in the liver, forming conjugated bilirubin, also major component of GAGs which make up extracellular envt

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Deoxy sugars

Monosaccharide derivate

ie, Deoxyribose

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Sugar alcohols

Monosaccharide derivate

Glycerol - derived from hydrolysis of triacylglycerol, makes glycerol phosohate
Sorbitol - excess results in damage to the lens
Galactitol - contributes to cataract formation

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Amino sugars

Monosaccharide derivate

Replacement of hydroxyl group with an amino group

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Sugar esters

Monosaccharide derivate

Glycosidic linkage with sulfate or phosphate

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Glycosylation

Monosaccharide derivate

Sugar aldehyde with amino group in an irreversible bond

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Fructose intolerance

Leads to hypoglycemia

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Hereditary galactosemia

failure to metabolize galactose leads to cataracts

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Glycoproteins

Oligosaccharide + protein

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Glycolipids

Oligosaccharide + lipid

Proteoglycan

glycosaminoglycan + protein

Exapmles of polysaccharide

Glycogen Starch Cellulose (polymers of glucose)

Linkages in glycogen:

α-1,4 with branches formed by α-1,6

Enzyme that releases glucose subunits in glycogen

Gycogen phophorylase

Starch is metabolized by which human enzyme

Amylase

Cellulose is digested by which human enzyme

None. It can not be digested. It is an important source of fiber

Ex of a negatively charged polysaccharide: | Which is an important component in ______

Hyaularonic acid Extracellular matrix

Carbon from macronutrients is ____ to:

oxidized, CO2

O2 is ___ to ____ in metabolism

reduced, H2O

Major energy producing pathways:

Glycolysis Fatty acid oxidation TCA/krebs cycle

Carbohydrates enter major energy producing pathways as:

Glucose and fructose

Lipids enter major energy producing pathways as:

Acetyl CoA and succinyl CoA

High energy bonds present on ATP

Phosphate anhydride

Two mechanisms cells use to produce ATP:

``` Substrate level phosphorylation (produces 2 ATP) Oxidative phosphorylation (produces ~36 ATP) ```

Major electron acceptors in energy-producing pathways

FAD, NAD+

Major e- donors in energy-producing pathways

FADH2, NADH

NADH transfers _____ e- and yields ___ ATP

2 e- | 2.5 ATP

FADH/FADH2 transfers _____ e- and yields ___ ATP

1/2 e- | 1.5 ATP

Role of NADPH

NADP+ is reduced to NADPH | NADPH is used in biosynthetic and antioxidant defense systems, not typical ATP production

Role of phosphocreatine

Converts ADP to ATP Has a high energy phosphate bond

When ATP synthesis exceeds immediate needs in skeletal muscle tissue:

creatine --> phosphocreatine

When energy is needed in skeletal muscle tissue:

phosphocreatine --> creatine

Enzyme(s) assoicated with phosphocreatine

Enzyme creatine kinase (CK) or creatine phosphokinase (CPK) phosphorylate creatine reversibly

Activated carrier with EX

A molecule that can donate a chemical group to another molecule in an energetically favorable process EX: ATP; phosphoryl transfer Co-A; acyl group transfer SAM; methy group transfer

Catabolic stages

1. break down of molecules to small building blocks by digestive enzymes 2. Formation of Acetyl CoA via degradation 3. Oxidation of Acetly CoA in the CAC and production of ATP through ETC

Mitochondrial matrix:

Production of Acetyl CoA TCA cycle β-oxidation of fatty acids Ketogenesis

Inner memebrane of mitochondria:

Oxidative phosphorylation, ETC

Cystosol:

``` Glycolysis Glycogenesis Glygenolysis Pentose phosphate shunt Fatty acid synthesis ```

Smooth ER:

Steroid synthesis

Rough ER:

Protein synthesis

Mitochondria and cytosol:

Gluconeogenesis, Urea cycle and heme biosynthesis

Nucleus and mitochondria:

DNA and RNA synthesis

Enzyme class which hydrolyzes chemical bonds:

Hydrolase

Enzyme class which rearranges bonds with in a molecule:

Isomerase

Enzyme class which forms a chemical bond

Ligase

Enzyme class which breaks chemical bonds by means other than oxidation or hydrolysis

Lyase

Enzyme class which transfers phosphate group for a high energy carrying molecule

Kinase

Enzyme class which runs redox reactions

Oxidoreductase

Enzyme class which partakes in polymerization

Polymerase

Enzyme class which removes a phosphate group from a molecule

Phosphatase

Enzyme class which transfers a phosphate group to a molecule form inorganic phosphate

Phosphorylase

Enzyme class which hydrolyzes peptide bonds

Protease

Enzymes that are physically associated to prevent metabolic intermediates from diffusing away

Metabolon

Isomer

Same chemical formula with different spatial arrangement Enantiomers: mirror images Epimers: differ at one stereocenter

Carbohydrate molecular formula

Cn(H2O)n

Mannose, glucose and fructose are _____

Epimers

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are a major component of:

The extracellular matrix

Rate determining enzyme in glycolysis

PFK-1

Rate determining enzyme in Gluconeogenesis

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

Rate determining enzyme in TCA cycle

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

NADPH is crucial in:

Anabolic processes (synthesis of lipids) Respiratory burst Cyt P-450 Glutathione reductase

Rate determining enzyme in glycogenesis

Glycogen synthase

Rate determining enzyme in glycogenolysis

Glycogen phosphorylase

Rate determining enzyme in HMP shunt

G6PD

Primary vs secondary lactose intolerance

1 - born with a genetic deficiency of lactase enzyme | 2- age-dependent loss of enzyme