Structural Theories

Question 1

Examples of structural theories

Answer 1

Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, New Right

Question 2

Structural Theories

Answer 2

See society as a real thing existing over + above us, shaping our ideas/behaviour. People are like puppets - can be manipulated by society. They believe study of society should be about its structure; social institutions that make up society + relationships between these social institutions. Positivists: believe society can be studied like natural sciences. Macro approach: wants to focus on large numbers. Top-down approach: concerned w/ the big picture.

Question 3

Consensus structuralism

Answer 3

Idea that society works because of agreement. (Organic Analogy) Functionalists see society like an organism: sociologists should study functions of ‘organs’ of society (social institutions) to understand society.

Question 4

Conflict structuralism

Answer 4

Society is underpinned by conflict. Marxist believe economy drives society + determines social institutions. Institutions will function for needs of those in charge of economy + will exploit workers. This exploitation leads to conflict. Feminists argue there are gender inequalities in all areas of society.

Question 5

Functionalist Theory

Answer 5

Macro, structural theory - focus is needs of social system + how its shapes society. A consensus theory - sees society as based on agreement of its main values + goals. A modernist theory - shares goals of enlightenment project.

Question 6

Functionalism: society as a system (PARSONS)

Answer 6

Organic analogy - describes society as biological organism. PARSONS identifies 3 similarities between society + organism: 1) both self-regulating systems of inter-related parts that fit together. Society = parts are institutions/individual roles; body = organs + cells. 2) both have needs to survive. Organisms = food; society = mems must be socialised for society to continue. 3) both functions to ensure survival - circulatory system of body carries nutrients/oxygen to tissues. Economy helps maintain social system by meeting need for food/shelter.

Question 7

Functionalism: value consensus + social order (PARSONS)

Answer 7

Social order achieved through existence of shared culture. Provides framework that allows individuals to cooperate through shared rules/goals. Social order only achieved through (what DURKHEIM + PARSONS calls) value consensus. It does this by integrating individuals into social system - directs them to meeting system’s needs. PARSONS: society has 2 mechanisms to ensure individuals conform to share norms/needs. 1) socialisation = teaching pple what system requires of them. They internalise systems norms + values so society, becomes part of personality structure. Agencies of socialisation - fam, education, media, religion. 2) Social control = positive sanctions to those who conform; negative sanctions to those who deviate. Eg, educational achievement rewarded w/ qualifications, those w/o are stigmatised.

Question 8

Functionalism: The Gail Model

Answer 8

PARSONs identifies basic needs of society are met by separate subsystem of institutions:
Goal attainment - society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them (function of political subsystem), Adaptation - society meets material needs (economic subsystem), Integration - parts of system integrated to pursue shared goals (role of education, religion and the media), Latency - processes that maintain society (role of the family). Role of Latency in family : pattern maintenance - socialising people to perform roles society requires. Tension management - place to allow people to ‘let off steam’ from stress of work. Goal attainment + adaptation - instrumental needs (to be met to ensure survival). Integration + latency are expressive needs (eg. Need for belonging).

Question 9

Mertons internal critique of functionalism

Answer 9

Indispensability: Parsons ignores the fact that there may be functional alternatives e.g. lone parents may be just as good if not better at performing primary socialisation than Nuclear fam.

Functional Unity: assumes all parts of society are tightly integrated. ignores the fact that some institutions have functional autonomy (independence from each other).

Universal Functionalism: ignores the idea that some things may be functional for some but dysfunctional for others. Parsons doesn’t account for conflict within society.

Question 10

Functionalism - logical criticisms

Answer 10

Critics argue functionalism is teleological. Idea that things exists because of their function. critics argue real explanation of something comes form cause rather than effect. Functionalism explains that family exists because children need to be socialised (effect) but doesn’t explain what caused Fam.

criticised for being unscientific. it isn’t falsifiable - doesn’t have ability to be proved wrong.

Question 11

Functionalism _ conflict perspective criticisms

Answer 11

Criticised for inability to explain conflict + change. Marxists + Feminists argue that society isn’t harmonious, based on conflicting interests + unequal power. Stability is result of dominant groups preventing change. Conflict theorist therefore see functionalism as conservative ideology that legitimises status quo.

Question 12

Functionalism _ Action perspective criticisms

Answer 12

Wrong (1961) criticises its deterministic view that people have no free will + are puppets to the social system. Action approaches conversely argue individuals create society by their interactions.

also argue that society is not a distinct thing with its own needs. don’t view society as having its own independent existence.

Question 13

Functionalism _ postmodernist criticisms

Answer 13

Argues meta-narrative of functionalism cannot account for diversity + instability of PM society.

Question 14

Marxist feminism Ansley 1972)

Answer 14

Women suffer their husbands’ work frustrations. They are takers of shit. Women are often paid less - assumed they will be partially dependant on their husbands’ earnings. They can be classified as a reserve army of labour: moved into the labour force during economic booms + out again at times of recession.

Question 15

Evaluation of Marxist feminism

Answer 15

Shows a greater understanding of the importance of structural factors than liberal feminism. But fails to explain women’s subordination in non-capitalist societies. Also, underplays influence of non-economic factors: culture/ religion, in oppression of women. It does not emphasise differences in economic position of women - some argue that MC women + WC women are not equally exploited which Marxist feminism does not account for. It ignores social, legal changes aimed at liberation of women in western societies.

Question 16

Liberal Feminism

Answer 16

Lack of legitimate opportunities for women in education/employment/politics. Gender equality will be achieved by working within existing social structures. E.g., in laws to prevent sex discrimination - THE EQUAL PAY ACT. Also, challenge biological differences as an indicator for roles (expressive/ instrumental) women + men have. Therefore, critique functionalists view.

Question 17

Radical Feminism

Answer 17

Society is based on the oppression of women. Argue revolutionary change is needed. Millet (1970) regardless of class, all women are expected to be subservient to all men. Firestone (1974) origins of patriarchy - women’s capacity to bear/care for infants - become dependent on men. Millet argues that women internalise patriarchy by seeing themselves as inferior. RF’s - personal + sexual relationships must be transformed for women to be free. Proposed number of solutions to achieve this: 1) Separatism - living apart from men will allow females to be independent and free from patriarchy. Greer (2000) creation of matrifocal households as an alternative to heterosexual families. 2) Consciousness-raising- sharing experiences in women only (CR) groups to see other women face same problems. 3) Political lesbianism: heterosexual relationships - sleeping w/ the enemy. Lesbianism seen as only non-oppressive form of sexuality.

Question 18

Evaluation of Radical Feminism

Answer 18

Draws attention to political dimensions of areas - marriage, domestic labour, domestic violence, rape + pornography. Marxist critique: ignores class + ethnic differences between women. Also, has an inadequate theory of how patriarchy will be abolished. Separatism is unlikely to be achievable. Heterosexual attraction makes it difficult to replace nuclear fam w/ single-sex households. Liberal feminist’s critique: argue women’s position has improved. Social reforms + changing attitudes: better education + job opportunities.

Question 19

Dual System Feminism

Answer 19

Combine key features of Marxist + Radical feminism into a single theory. Hartmann (1979) see capitalism + patriarchy as 2 intertwined systems that form ‘patriarchal capitalism’. Accepts patriarchy is universal but argue that patriarchy takes a special form in capitalist societies. Domestic work limits women’s availability for paid work, but lack of work opportunities drives many women into marriage + economic dependence on a man. The two systems reinforce each other. Walby (1998) - agrees capitalism + patriarchy inter-related but believes interests of 2 are not always the same. Capitalism demands cheap female labour, patriarchy resists this, wanting to keep women subordinate to men within, private, domestic sphere. This shows how the 2 systems interact + structure one another, w/o assuming their interests always collide.

Question 20

Difference feminism

Answer 20

Feminism has claimed a false universality - claimed to be all about all women. Reality = only about white, western, hetero, MC women. Sometimes known as Post Modern Feminism. It rejects essentialism, the idea that all women share same fundamental experiences of oppression. Poststructuralist Feminism: Butler focuses on discourses (ways of seeing/thinking/speaking about something). Because there are so many discourses in different times + different cultures - no fixed entity of what it is to be a woman. It allows the deconstruction of different discourses to revel how they subordinate women.

Question 21

Difference feminism evaluation

Answer 21

Offers theoretical basis for recognising diversity of women’s experiences + struggles. Walby (1992) despite differences among women, they are all faced w/ same patriarchy. Some argue celebrating differences between women divide them into subgroups, thereby weakening feminism as a movement of change. Segal (1999) criticises it for abandoning notion of real, objective structures. Oppression is about real inequality. Feminists should focus on struggle for equality of wealth + income

Question 22

NEO-LIBERALSIM

Answer 22

A set of economic/political ideas that became popular w/ UK conservative governments in 1980s + New Labour governments (1997 - 2010). Stresses need for free market economy in which competition between manufactures + service providers is promoted w/ little regulation from gov. they believe free markets maximise personal freedom + consumer choice.

Question 23

New right - traditional morality

Answer 23

New right emphasises traditional ways of thinking . see fam as foundation of society. believe nuclear fam socialises children into traditional status roles. see traditional fam as under attack from liberal gov social policies e.g. legislation of gay marriage + promotion of women’s rights

Question 24

New Right: Rolling back the state

Answer 24

Support rolling back state services: replacing it w/ private providers of education, health + adult social care. services would compete in free market to provide greater choice to consumers as competition - thought to drive down prices + raise standards. NR thinkers believe state provision of public services wastes money + is inefficient compared to private provision.

Question 25

New Right: Anti-welfarism + underclass

Answer 25

Raises concerns about breakdown of family + loss of individuals taking responsibilities for the,selves = families, relying to greatly on ‘over-generous’ welfare state. Leads to culture of dependency, increases Juvenal crime + ultimately a breakdown of society. Murray (!990) argues state benefits need to be cut so mems of underclass are forced into labour market to look for work.

Question 26

New Right Evaluation

Answer 26

• highlights over-reliance on state by fraction of pop. identifies issues w/ certain parts of society + implements policies to try overcome these. E.g. ‘troubled families’ policy initiative to try tackle fams where no one works.
• underclass theory blames poverty on poor behaviour of pple who claim benefits. but Marxists argue poverty is actually caused by wider social, economic + political factors over which people have little control. FIELD (1990) says that it is unfair of New right to engage in Victim Blaming.
• critics argue no convincing evidence that a distinct subculture with its own unique value system actually exists.
• NR emphasis on traditional values is dated + fails to take account of social change + increasing fam Diversity.
• little evidence that private provision of public services is any more efficient/ effective than state provision.
• feminists criticise NR view that ‘traditional’ gender roles are best for children.

Question 27

Traditional Marxism

Answer 27

MARX (1867) two conflicting classes in capitalist society. Bourgeoise + proletariat. Relationship known as ‘the social relations of production’ = unequal + exploitative - wages paid to workers worth less than value of product. creates conflict - proletariat want more wages while bourgeoise want more labour for same wage. He says means of production makes up economic base of society. this base then determines superstructure - economic determinism. Marxist believe job of superstructure is to legitimise position of ruling class + its ideology. institutions set up to stop WC from gaining power - makes them believe Capitalist system is meritocratic. also argue WC are lulled into False consciousness (not aware of the oppression they suffer + how to break free from it). As conflict becomes progressively worse, proletariat will come together + overthrow system. Marx argues their will be a revolution - through this socialist/communist society will emerge.

Question 28

Traditional Marxism evaluation

Answer 28

• simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality.
• feminists argue that gender is more of inequality than class.
• Marx’s two class model > too simplistic. WEBER subdivides proletariat into skilled + unskilled classes ext.
• criticised for being economically deterministic. fails to recognise humans have free will + can bring about change.
• Marx’s predictions of a universal revolution have not come true
• critics argue society has become fairer (expansion of welfare services)
• it is 1st critical theory of huge inequalities in society.
• shows power of economy in shaping ideas/relationships.

Question 29

Neo - Marxism

Answer 29

Western world revolution not happened. therefore developed new models of Marx’s theory. tried to explain why capitalism has persisted + how might be overthrown.

Question 30

Humanistic Marxism

Answer 30

GRAMSCI focused on hegemony (domination of ruling class ideology in society). he argued social control doesn’t just come through economics but also ideas. For him, ruling class controls ideas (media + education); ideas become dominant + WC consent to them.

However, hegemony of RC never complete because RC are minority. plus, proletariat have dual consciousness (can see through dominant ideology to some degree). Therefore always possibility of RC being undermined.

he said people could never rise up because of economic position alone. They would have to rise up intellectually, by working out a ‘proletarian hegemony’ w/ a complete new idea of how to organise society based on socialist rather than capitalist values.

Question 31

Humanistic Marxism Evaluation

Answer 31

• under-emphasises role of state coercion + economic factors. Workers may see through RC ideology but hesitate to overthrow as fear of repression/ unemployment. tolerate capitalism as have no choice.
• all sociologists w/ Marxist framework adopt similar approach to Gramsci eg/ WILLIS - describes WC lads who ‘partially penetrated’RC ideology, they recognised that meritocracy is a myth.

Question 32

Structuralist Marxism

Answer 32

Althusser sees Capitalist society w/ 3 structures:

1/economic level : compromises activities that produce something to satisfy a need.

2/political level : compromising all forms of organisation.

3/ideological level: involving the ways that people see themselves.

in this model of society, political + ideological levels are partially independent from economic level. They can effect what happens to economy.

He says that in order for capitalism to continue , state performs political + ideological functions that ensure reproduction of capitalism. he divides State into 2 apparatuses:

1) repressive State apparatus- army, police, prisons etc. coerce WC into complying w/ will of bourgeoise
2) ideological state apparatus - media, education system, family work by manipulating WC into accepting capitalism as legitimate.

He states ISA produces False consciousness, our belief that we have free will and choice is just an illusion.

Question 33

Structuralist Marxism evaluation

Answer 33

• although rejects economic determinism, replaces it w/ structural determinism (everything determined by 3 structures + their interrelationships).
• Structural Marxism influences studies of education including work of Bowles + Gintis (1976) + Bourdieu (1986).

Question 34

Neo-Marxism evaluation

Answer 34

• update Marxist ideas; more applicable to contemporary society. acknowledge power of ideas in shaping economy, thus avoiding criticism that they are economic determinists.
• focus on class - less relevant in society where other parts of a person’s identity may be more relevant - ethnicity, gender.
• post-structuralists + postmodernists argue that neo-Marxism relies on structural approach to society - no longer relevant in society today.