Research methods

Question 1

Interpretivists characteristics

Answer 1

• Qualitative
• Valid
• Less scientific
• Subjective

Question 2

positivist sociology

Answer 2

scientific observation of social behavior

quantitative

objective

reliable

Question 3

What are the PERVERT factors of research methods?

Answer 3

practical

ethical

reliability

validity

examples

representative

Theoretical

Question 4

Stages involved in designing + conducting research:

Answer 4

1) choosing a topic
2) Formulating an aim/hypothesis
3) Operationalising concepts
4) The pilot study
5) Sampling

Question 5

1. Research Design: choosing a topic

Answer 5

Sociologists need to decide what topic they wish to study. (this will be guided by your identity/passions, world issues, reasons for patterns/trends in society)

Question 6

2. Research Design: Formulating aim or hypothesis

Answer 6

This aim/hypothesis will be tested. aim identifies what sociologist intends to study, hopes to achieve by conducting research.
Hypothesis could be an idea; predicted statement that can be tested. It gives direction to research + focus on questions to be asked. Requires sociologist to think up possible explanation. If evidence gathered shows hypothesis is false then must be discarded, and attention will be directed to new areas of research.

Question 7

3. Research Design: operationalizing concepts

Answer 7

To test: abstract ideas ,central to the hypothesis, must be operationalized. (measuring a variable, defining variable so it can be measured - necessary before research starts).
After ‘operational’ definition of concept - can write questions that measure it.

Question 8

4. Research Design: The Pilot Study

Answer 8

Next, need to produce pilot study : small scale study conducted before real study. Errors can be spotted + improved. Questionnaire or interview schedule can be finalized.

Question 9

5. Research Design: Sampling

Answer 9

Once topic of research decided, need to decide who should be included in their research - target/ research Population. Practical reasons- research cannot involve entire population - sociologists choose sample.

Purpose of sampling - ensure those selected are representative of larger target pop.

Results in generalizations that apply to all cases/ people of topic/ not just who they are studying - an example of macro sociology.

Question 10

6. Research Design: Sampling techniques

Answer 10

Use techniques/ methods to select sample for research.

1. Representative sampling (RS):

Random - sample selected by chance eg. names drawn out of a hat. If large enough reflect characteristics (gender/ethnicity/class) of whole research pop. sometimes not large enough to ensure representativeness.

Quasi - Random/systematic - (high level random sampling) every nth person in sampling frame (SF) is selected.

Stratified random - firstly breaks down pop of SF by age/gender/ethnicity. sample created in same proportions eg. if 20% of pop U18, 20% sample U18.

Quota - pop is stratified. each given quota of say 20 females + 20 males- they have to fill w/ respondents who fit criteria .Interview does this till quota is filled.

2. Non-representative sampling: Interpretivists engage in micro level analysis. more concerned w/ valid understanding of behavior. Reasons why cant create RS: social characteristics of pop may not be disclosed; impossible to find or create sampling frame for particular research pop, respondents may refuse to participate. what sampling they do instead:

Snow-ball - collect sample by contacting no of individuals, ask them to suggest others who would participate, thus adding to sample. creating a network. NOT RS.

opportunity - choosing from individuals who are easiest to access or a captive audience. NOT RS.

Question 11

Name all representative and Non-representative sampling techniques:

Answer 11

RS:
Random
Quasi- Random/ systematic
Stratified Random
Quota
Non RS:
snowball
opportunity

Question 12

Advantages of a Lab Experiment

Answer 12

• Can establish cause and effect relationship between independent + dependent variables - allows scientists to predict accurately what will happen in the future.
• can replicate lab experiments - if follow exact same steps. method is therefore reliable.
• detached method - scientists’ personal feelings/ opinions have no effect on outcome of experiment.
• Positivists favor this method as see it as an objective way to conduct research modelled on scientific methodology.

Question 13

Disadvantages of a Lab Experiment

Answer 13

• society is very complex - impossible to identify/control all variables that might impact on behavior.
• small-scale nature of the experiment reduces representativeness
• artificial environment where the experiment takes place (lab) means unlikely behavior is true or valid.
• Hawthorne Effect - if people know they are being studied, the knowledge will impact on their behavior by changing it - again reduces validity.

Question 14

Field experiments as a better alternative to Lab experiments:

Answer 14

• take place in subjects natural surroundings rather than artificial environment - more valid + realistic.
• To avoid Hawthorne Effect, participants aren’t aware they are taking part in experiment (critics argue unethical).
• Because they’re more realistic - less scope for control over variables.

Question 15

comparative method

Answer 15

carried only in mind of sociologist. ‘thought experiment’. researcher doesn’t experiment on real people at all. Still designed for identifying cause + effect relationships. How it works:

1) identifies 2 groups of people that are alike in all major aspects except for one variable they’re interested in.
2) then compare 2 groups to see if one difference between them has any effect.

Question 16

Advantages + Disadvantages of the Comparative Method

Answer 16

Advantages - ethical, avoids artificiality + can be used to study past events.

Disadvantages - less control over variables than field experiments, less certain whether its discovered the cause of something.

Question 17

Questionnaires

Answer 17

List of pre-determined questions (post, hand or online)

Closed questions have pre-determined range of response options made by researcher. Respondent selects from options - box to tick/ preference to circle.

Open questions: respondent asked to answer in own words. no options. allows qualitative data to be gained even though questionnaires are a main method for generating quantitative data.

Question 18

Advantages of questionnaires

Answer 18

*Practical advantages
Quick/cheap way of gathering large amounts of data from large samples, geographically dispersed.
Respondents complete/return Qs themselves. No need to recruit and train interviewers. Data - easy to quantify, especially closed Qus.

*Reliability
Standardized. All respondents asked same questions, in same order, w/ same response options. Research easily repeated. Differences in answers assumed as reflection of actual differences between respondents. Postal + online questionnaires -no researcher presents to influence respondent’s answers.

*Testing hypotheses
Useful for testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. Attractive to positivists, enable trends + patterns to be identified through scientific approach.

*Detachment and objectivity
Positivists favor - detached objective method - sociologists’ personal involvement with their respondents is minimized (particularly W/ online + postal Qs).

*Representativeness
truly representative as collect information from a large sample of people. Try to obtain representative sample, allow findings to be generalized to wider target pop.

_ Ethical advantages
Respondents under no obligation to answer questions + their anonymity is guaranteed.

Question 19

Disadvantages Questionnaires

Answer 19

*Practical disadvantages
Data tends to be limited + superficial. They are brief to ensure respondents complete + return them. Postal/online Qs - researcher cannot guarantee respondent received questionnaire or if completed by person it was addressed to.

*Low response rate
Particularly postal + online Qs. Respondents may be different form non-respondents - results will then be distorted + unrepresentative - no valid generalizations can be made.

*Inflexibility
New areas of interest cannot be explored. Considered areas cannot be expanded on once questions are set and fixed into research.

*Snapshots
Provides intel at only one point in time - the moment questions are completed. Does not provide valid picture of the way people’s attitudes + behavior change.

*Detachment
Interpretivists - data lacks validity + does not give true picture. Does not allow sociologists to get close to the subjects. Interpretivists believe research should enable sociologist to put themselves in subjects’ position - see world through their eyes.
postal + online Qs involve no direct contact between researcher + researched. no way to clarify what the questions mean/deal with misunderstandings.

*Deception
Depends on respondents’ willingness + ability to provide accurate answers. Problems of validity when respondents give limited answers. May be dishonest, forget, not understand, or try to please the researcher.

*Inflicting Researcher’s meaning
By choosing which questions to ask, how to ask them, predetermined options for answering.

Question 20

Interviews + Types

Answer 20

Compromise between structured research (questionnaires) + unstructured in-depth methods (participant observation). Types of interviews:
STRUCTURED/FORMAL INTERVIEWS - verbal questionnaire. Interviewer given strict standardised instructions on how to ask questions in same way, order + tone of voice.
UNSTRUCTURED/INFORMAL INTERVIEWS - guided conversation where interviewer has complete freedom to vary questions, wording, order etc. Follow up questions - greater depth.
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS - between two. Each interview has same set of questions, but interviewer can probe for more detailed info. CICOUREL + KITSUSE (1963) always followed up questions w/ ‘How do you mean?’ to gain more info.
GROUP INTERVIEWS - WILLIS (1977) research into anti school subcultures. Focus groups - form of group interviews in which researcher asks a group to discuss certain topics + records views.

Question 21

Disadvantages of Structured Interviews

Answer 21

Practical issues - more costly to train interviewers.

Response Rate - high but participants may be untypical. Produce unrepresentative data + undermine validity of generalizations.

closed questions reduce validity of responses as freedom of interviewees is restricted. Little scope to clarify misunderstandings. Interview being interaction - always risk that researcher will impact on answers.

inflexible - standardized Qus + predetermined responses.

Feminist criticisms - researcher is dominant + in control of interview. Argued this mirrors women’s subordination in wider society. Feminist + interpretivists favour unstructured interviews - enable researcher to build more equal + collaborate relationship based on trust empathy + support.

Question 22

Advantages of structured interviews

Answer 22

Can cover large sample. Results are easily quantified. Questions usually closed + pre coded - suitable for hypothesizes testing.

high response rate. People often find it difficult to turn down a face-to-face request. Increases chances of gaining representative sample - provides basis for making generalizations.

reliable as standardized - can be repeated. Another researcher following same interview procedure will get same results. Answers can easily be compared. similarities + differences identified.

Question 23

Advantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 23

1. allows researcher to develop rapport (where conversation reflects relationship of trust + understanding) with the interviewee. Will put interviewee at ease and encourage them to be open. Useful for studying sensitive issues. DOBASH + DOBASH used to study domestic violence. Empathy/ encouragement of researcher will help interviewee feel comfortable discussing difficult issues.
2. provide freedom + scope for interviewee to speak what they think are import + relevant to research in own terms. More likely to produce fresh insights + valid data. Researchers probing can formulate + develop interviewees’ thoughts more clearly.
3. interviewer + interviewee can check meanings + follow up questions can clarify misunderstandings.
4. flexibility - researcher can formulate ideas + hypotheses + put them to test as arise during course of interview.
5. because Qu’s are open-ended + exploratory as in ordinary convo, researchers start interview w/ little knowledge on issues researched. Some use them as starting point to develop initial ideas about a topic and then use more structured investigation.

Question 24

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 24

time consuming

expensive

small sample compared w/ structured interviews.

difficult to replicate interviews, so can be seen a invalid

difficult to compare and measure responses.

peer pressure in group discussions and interviews

interviewer bias

Question 25

What is the difference between non-participant and participant observation?

Answer 25

NPO - the researcher observes the group/event without taking part.
PO - the researcher joins the group and participates in their everyday life while observing it.

Question 26

What is overt observation?

What is covert observation?

Answer 26

OVERT_ the true identity of the researcher is known to those being studied. The sociologist is open with their observations and participants are aware that they’re being observed/researched.
COVERT_ the study is conducted ‘undercover’. The researcher’s real identity and purpose is concealed from those being studied.
This entails the researcher taking on a false identity and role - posing as a genuine member of the group they are studying.