Sternberg Chapter 3

Question 1

Perception

Answer 1

set of processes by which we recognize, organize, and make sense of the sensations we receive from environmental stimuli. Perception encompasses many psychological phenomena, but visual perception is the most widely studied perceptual modality.

Question 2

Distal Object

Answer 2

(aka far) is the object in the external world

Question 3

Information Medium

Question 4

Proximal Stimulation

Question 5

Perceptual Object

Question 6

Sensory Adaptation

Answer 6

is a phenomenon where receptor cells adapt to constant stimulation by ceasing to fire until there is a change in stimulation. Basically, we stop detecting a stimulus after a while unless it changes

Question 7

What does Ganzfeld mean and what does it refer to?

Answer 7

german for “complete field”it refers to an unstructured visual field

Question 8

Percept

Question 9

Human can only perceive what range of wavelengths?

Answer 9

380-750 nanometers

Question 10

Cornea

Answer 10

protective clear dome covering the eye, that light passes through

Question 11

Pupil

Answer 11

Opening at the center of Iris, which light passes through

Question 12

What is a gel-like substance that makes up the majority of the eye?

Question 13

Fovea

Answer 13

small think region of the retina, where vision is most acute

Question 14

How many layers is the retina made up of?

Answer 14

Three: Gangalion, neuronal cells and photoreceptors

Question 15

Ganglion Cells

Answer 15

first level on the outward-facing surface of the eye. Their axons make up the optic nerve

Question 16

Neuronal Cells

Answer 16

Amacrine Cells, Horizontal Cells, and Bipolar Cells

“interneuron cells”

They make a single horizontal connection among adjacent areas of ht eretina in the middle layer of cells. The bipolar cells make dual connections forward and outward to the ganglion cells, as well as backward and inward to the third layer of retinal cells (the photoreceptors)

Question 17

Photoreceptors

Answer 17

this is the third layer of the retina. Photoreceptors convert light energy (light wavelengths) into electrochemical energy that is transmitted by neurons to the brain. There are two types of photoreceptors

Question 18

Name the two types of photoreceptors

Answer 18

Rods: 120 million per eye, are long and thin shaped photoreceptors that are more concentrated in the periphery of the retina. They are responsible for night vision and are sensitive to light and dark stimuli.

Cones: 8 million per eye, are short and thick photoreceptors that allow for the perception of color. They are more highly concentrated in the foveal region of the retina

Question 19

Both rods and cones contain

Answer 19

“photopigments,” or chemical substances that react to light and transform physical electromagnetic energy into an electrochemical neural impulse that can be understood by the brain

Question 20

What forms the optic nerve and where do they cross?

Answer 20

The axons of the ganglion cells in the eye collectively form the optic nerve for that eye.

The optic nerve then go to the brain (where they cross at the optic chiasma) and extend to the opposite hemisphere of the brain

Question 21

Pathways to Perceive the What and the Where?

Answer 21

visual pathways are the path that information takes from its entering the human perceptual system through to eyes to its being completely processed

Question 22

Name the 2 pathways to perceive the what and the where.

Answer 22

1. The Dorsal Pathway, aka the “where” pathway- responsible for processing location and motion information.
2. The Ventral Pathway, aka the “What” Pathway- responsible for processing the color, shape, and identity of visual stimuli.

Question 23

Name the alternative to the what/where process.

Answer 23

An alternative to the above “what/where hypothesis” is the “What/How” hypothesis.

1. The What Pathway: like before, is found in the ventral stream and is responsible for the identification of objects.
2. The How Pathway: is located in the Dorsal stream (instead of the above “where” hypothesis), and controls movements in relation to the objects that have been identified through the “what pathway.”

Question 24

Name the two theories that explain HOW we perceive the world.

Answer 24

Bottom-Up Theories describe approaches where perception starts with the stimuli whose appearance you can take in through your eye. Perception happens when light information is transported to your brain. They’re Data- Driven (aka Stimulus-Driven) theories.

-Top-Down Theories believe that perception is driven by high-level cognitive processes, existing knowledge, and the prior expectations that influence perception. These theories then work their way down to considering the sensory data, such as perceptual stimuli. You perceive building as big in the background because you already know these buildings are bigger than they appear. From this viewpoint, expectations are important.

Question 25

Name the 4 main bottom-up theories

Answer 25

1. Direct Perception
2. Template Theories
3. Feature Theories
4. Recognition-by-components theory

Question 26

Describe the theory of direct perception

Answer 26

Direct Perception: aka Gibson’s theory of Direct Perception, it holds the information in our sensory receptors, including the sensory context, is all we need to perceive anything

we don’t need higher cognitive processes or anything else to mediate between our sensory experiences and our perceptions. Existing beliefs or higher-level though processes are not necessary for perception.

Question 27

Define Ecological Perception and under what theory is that term from?

Answer 27

As the environment supplies us with all of the information we need for perception, this is also sometimes

Theory: Direct Perception

Question 28

What is Hoffding function?

Answer 28

a problem that asks “how do we connect what we perceive to what we have stored in our minds?

Question 29

What are Texture Gradients?

Answer 29

Cues for depth and distance that let us perceive proximity, distance and parts of object

Question 30

Describe the Template Theories

Answer 30

these suggest that we have stored in our minds myriad sets of templates.

Templates are “highly detailed models for patterns we potentially might recognize.

we recognize a pattern by comparing it with our set of templates. We then choose the EXACT template that perfecting matches what we observe.

-examples: fingerprint matching (must be exactly the same) and Chess players who recall previous games.

Question 31

Describe Feature Matching Theories

Answer 31

Feature-matching theories holds that we attempt to match features of a pattern to features stored in memory rather than to match a whole pattern to a “template” or prototype

Question 32

What is the Pandemonium Model and under which theory does it come from?

Answer 32

is a feature-matching model that says, metaphorical demons with specific duties receive and analyze the features of a stimulus

theory: feature-matching

In this, there are four kinds of demons: image demons, feature demons, cognitive demons, and decision demons

Question 33

Define Global Precedence Effect and from which theory is it under?

Answer 33

when local letters are small and positions close together participants can identify stimuli at the global level (aka the big picture that the little letters make up)

theory: feature-matching theories

Question 34

Define Local Precedence and under which theory doe it fall?

Answer 34

the opposite- when little letters are more widely spaced, a local precedence appears where the participants more quickly identify the small letters instead of the overall big picture that they make up

theory: feature-matching

Question 35

What is another name for the Gnostic Units?

Answer 35

Grandmother Cells and can recognize a complex object, such as recognizing your grandmother.

Question 36

What does recognition-by-componenets theory mean?

Answer 36

This theory explains our ability to perceive 3-d objects.

Biederman suggested we perceive 3-d objects by manipulating a number of simple 3d geometric shapes called “Geons” aka “Geometrical ions.

we quickly recognize objects by observing the edges of them and then decomposing the objects into geons

Question 37

Name the 4 top-down theories

Answer 37

1. Constructive Perception
2. The Configural-Superiority Effect
3. Object-Superiority Effect
4. Word-Superiority Effect

Question 38

What does the Constructive Perception theory say

Answer 38

the perceiver builds (constructs) a cognitive understanding (perception) of the stimulus. The concepts of the perceiver and his cognitive processes DO influence what he sees. The perceiver uses sensory information as the foundation of the structure, but also uses other sources of information to build the perception

Question 39

The Intelligent Perception is another name for

Answer 39

Constructive Perception

It is called this because it states that higher-order thinking plays an important role in perception. It also emphasizes the role of learning in perception

Question 40

According to constructivists, we form perceptions by quickly forming and testing various hypotheses regarding percepts, and the percepts are based on three things

Answer 40

1. What we SENSE (sensory data)
2. What we KNOW (knowledge stored in memory)
3. What we can INFER (using higher-level cognitive processes)

Question 41

Define Context Effects

Answer 41

the influences of the surrounding environment on perception

Question 42

Define Configural-Superiority Effect

Answer 42

where objects presented in certain configurations are easier to recognize than objects presented in isolation, even if the objects in the configurations are more complex than those in isolation

Question 43

Define Object-Superiority Effect

Question 44

Define Word-Superiority Effect

Answer 44

indicated that when people are presented with strings of letters, its easier for them to identify a single letter if the string makes sense and forms a word instead of just a nonsense sequel of letters

Question 45

How do bottom-up theories and top-down theories go together

Answer 45

these theories should be seen as considering the approaches to be complementary. That said, current theories regarding perception explain some, but not all. It is a complex process