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MATH 1342 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS > Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics > Flashcards

Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics Flashcards

1
Q

Analysis of variance

A

A test for the difference between two or more means. A simple analysis for variance (or ANOVA) has only one independent variable, whereas a factorial analysis of variance tests the means of more than one independent variable. One-way analysis of variance looks for differences between the means of more than two groups.

See One-way analysis of variance and Simple analysis of variance

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2
Q

Arithmetic mean

A

A measure of central tendency calculated by summing all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

(See Mean)

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3
Q

Asymptotic

A

The quality of the normal curve such that the tails never touch the horizontal axis.

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4
Q

Average

A

The most representative score in a set of scores.

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5
Q

Bell-shaped curve

(normal curve)

A

A distribution of scores that is symmetrical about the mean, the median, and the mode and has asymptotic tails.

Often called the normal curve.

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6
Q

Class interval

A

A fixed range of values, used in the creation of a frequency distribution.

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7
Q

Coefficient of alienation

A

The amount of variance in one variable that is not accounted for by the variance in another variable.

Also known as Coefficient of nondetermination

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8
Q

Coefficient of determination

A

The amount of variance in one variable that is accounted for by the variance in another variable.

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9
Q

Coefficient of nondetermination

A

The amount of variance in one variable that is not accounted for by the variance in another variable.

Also known as Coefficient of alienation

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10
Q

Concurrent criterion validity

A

How well a test outcome is consistent with a criterion that exists in the present.

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11
Q

Confidence interval

A

The best estimate of the range of a population value given the sample value.

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12
Q

Construct-based validity

A

How well a test reflects an underlying idea, such as intelligence or aggression.

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13
Q

Content validity

A

A type of validity that examines how well a test samples a universe of items.

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14
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A numerical index that reflects the relationship between two variables, specifically how the value of one variable changes when the value of the other variable changes.

See Pearson product-moment correlation

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15
Q

Correlation matrix

A

A table showing correlation coefficients among more than two variables.

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16
Q

Criterion

A

The outcome variable or the predicted variable in a regression equation.

See Dependent variable

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17
Q

Criterion-based validity

A

A type of validity that examines how well a test reflects some criterion that exists in either the present (concurrent) or the future (predictive).

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18
Q

Critical value

A

The value resulting from application of a statistical test that is necessary for rejection (or nonacceptance) of the null hypothesis.

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19
Q

Cross-tabulation table

A

A table that shows frequencies by two or more variables. The levels of one variable become column labels, and the levels of the other variable become row labels. Often called a crosstab.

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20
Q

Cumulative frequency distribution

A

A frequency distribution that shows frequencies for class intervals along with the cummulative frequency at each.

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21
Q

Data

A

A record of an observation or an event such as a test score, a grade in math class, or response time.

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22
Q

Data mining

A

Examining large data sets for patterns.

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23
Q

Data point

A

An observation.

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24
Q

Data set

A

A set of data points.

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25
Q

Degrees of freedom

A

A value, which is different for different statistical tests, that approximates the sample size of number of individual cells in an experimental design.

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26
Q

Dependent variable

A

The outcome variable or the predicted variable in a regression equation.

See Criterion

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27
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Values that organize and describe the characteristics of a collection of data, sometimes called a data set.

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28
Q

Direct correlation

A

A positive correlation where the values of both variables change in the same direction.

See Positive correlation

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29
Q

Directional research hypothesis

A

A research hypothesis that points a difference between groups in one direction.

See Nondirectional research hypothesis

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30
Q

Effect size

A

A measure of the magnitude of difference between two groups, usually calculated as Cohen’s d.

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31
Q

Error in prediction

A

The difference betwen the observed score (Y) and the predicted score.

See Standard error of estimate

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32
Q

Error score

A

The part of a test score that is random and contributes to the unreliability of a test.

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33
Q

Exabyte

A

1,152,921,504,606,846,976,976 bytes of data - lots and lots of data, and the amount of data in the world grew just as you read this. Wow.

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34
Q

Factorial analysis of variance

A

An analysis of variance with more than one factor or independent variable.

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35
Q

Factorial design

A

A research design used to explore more than one treatment variable.

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36
Q

Frequency distribution

A

A method for illustrating how often scores occur in groups called class intervals.

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37
Q

Frequency polygon

A

A graphical representation of a frequency distribution that uses a continuous line to show the number of values that fall within a class interval.

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38
Q

Goodness-of-fit test

A

A chi-squqare test on one dimension, which examines whether the distribution of frequencies is different from what one would expect by chance.

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39
Q

Histogram

A

A graphical representation of a frequency distribution that uses bars of different heights to show the number of values that fall within each class interval.

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40
Q

Hypothesis

A

An if-then statement of conjecture that relates to variables to one another and is used to reflect the general problem statement or question that is the motivation for asking a research question.

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41
Q

Independent variable

A

The treatment variable that is manipulated or the predictor variable in a regression equation.

See Predictor

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42
Q

Indirect correlation

A

A negative correlation where the values of variables move in opposite directions.

See Negative correlation

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43
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Tools that are used to infer characteristics of a population based on data from a sample of that population.

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44
Q

Interaction effect

A

The outcome where the effect of one factor is differentiated across another factor.

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45
Q

Internal consistency reliability

A

A type of reliability that examines whether items on a test measure only one-dimension, construct, or area of interest.

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46
Q

Interrater reliability

A

A type of reliability that examines whether observers are consistent with one another.

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47
Q

Interval level of measurement

A

A level of measurement that places a variable’s values into catagories that are equidistant from each other, as when points are evenly spaced along a scale.

48
Q

Kurtosis

A

The quality of a distribution that defines how flat or peaked it is.

49
Q

Leptokurtic

A

The quality of a normal curve that is relativeley peaked compared with a normal distribution.

50
Q

Line of best fit

A

The regression line that best fits the observed scores and minimizes the error in prediction.

51
Q

Linear correlation

A

A correlation that is best expressed visually as a straight line.

52
Q

Main effect

A

In analysis of variance, when a factor or an independent variable has a significant effect upon the outcome variable.

53
Q

Mean

A

A type of average calculated by summing values and dividing that sum by the number of values.

Also known as Arithmetic mean.

54
Q

Mean deviation

A

The average deviation for all scores from the mean of a distribution, calculated as the sum of the absolute value of the scores’ deviations from the mean divided by the number of scores.

55
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

The mean, the median, and the mode.

56
Q

Median

A

The midpoint in a set of values, such as that 50% of the cases in a distrbution fall below the median and 50% fall above it.

57
Q

Midpoint

A

The central point in a class interval.

58
Q

Mode

A

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

59
Q

Multiple regression

A

A statistical technique whereby several variables are used to predict one.

60
Q

Neagative correlation

A

A negative correlation where the values of variables move in opposite directions.

See Indirect correlation

61
Q

Nominal level of measurement

A

The most gross level of measurement by which a variable’s value can be placed in one and only one catagory.

62
Q

Nondirectional research hypothesis

A

A research hypothesis that posts a difference between groups but not in either direction. See Directional research hypothesis

63
Q

Nonparametric statistics

A

Distribution-free statistics that do not require the same assumptions as do parametric statistics.

See Parametric statistics

64
Q

Normal curve

(Bell-shaped cuve)

A

A distribution of scores that is symmetrical about the mean, the median, and the mode and has asymptotic tails.

Often called the Bell-shaped curve.

65
Q

Null hypothesis

A

A statement of equality between sets of variables.

See Research hypothesis

66
Q

Observed score

A

The score that is recorded or observed.

See True score

67
Q

Obtained value

A

The value that results from the application of a statistical test.

See Test statistic value

68
Q

Ogive

A

A visual representation of a cumulative frequency distribution.

69
Q

One-sample z test

A

Used to compare a sample mean to a population mean.

70
Q

One-tailed test

A

A directional test, reflecting a directional hypothesis.

71
Q

One-way analysis of variance

A

A test for the difference between two or more means. A simple analysis for variance (or ANOVA) has only one independent variable, whereas a factorial analysis of variance tests the means of more than one independent variable. One-way analysis of variance looks for differences between the means of more than two groups.

See Analysis of variance

72
Q

Ordinal level of measurement

A

A level of measurement that places a variable’s value into a catagory and assigns that category an order with respect to other categories.

73
Q

Outliers

A

Those scores in a distribution that are noticeably much more extreme than the majority of scores. Whether a score is an outlier or not is usually an arbitrary decision made by the researcher.

74
Q

Parallel forms reliability

A

A type of reliability that examines consistency across different forms of the same test.

75
Q

Parametric statistics

A

Statistics used for the inference from a sample to a population that assume the variances of each group are similar and that the sample in large enough to represent the population.

See Nonparametric statistics

76
Q

Partial correlation

A

A numerical index that reflects the relationship between two variables with the removal of the influence of a third variable (called a mediating or confounding variable).

77
Q

Pearson product-moment correlation

A

A numerical index that reflects the relationship between two variables, specifically how the value of one variable changes when the value of the other variable changes.

See Correlation coefficient

78
Q

Percentile rank

A

The percentage of cases equal to and below a particular score in a distribution or set of scores.

79
Q

Pivot table

A

A tool in statistical software, such as SPSS or Excel, that allows the user to easily manipulate the rows, columns, and frequencies included in cross-tabulation tables.

80
Q

Platykurtic

A

THe quaility of a normal curve that is relatively flat compared with a normal distribution.

81
Q

Population

A

All the possible subjects or cases of interest.

See Sample

82
Q

Positive correlation

A

A positive correlation where the values of both variables change in the same direction.

See Direct correlation

83
Q

Post hoc

A

After the fact, referring to tests done to determine the true source of a difference among three or more groups.

84
Q

Predictor

A

The treatment variable that is manipulated or the predictor variable in a regression equation.

(See Independent variable)

85
Q

Range

A

The positive difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution. It is a gross measure of variability.. Exclusive range is the highest score minus the lowest score. Inclusive range is the highest score minus the lowest score plus 1.

86
Q

Ratio level of measurement

A

A level of measurement defined as having an absolute zero.

87
Q

Regression equation

A

The equation that defines the points and the line that are closest to the observed scores.

88
Q

Regression line

A

The line drawn based on values in a regression equation. Also known as a trend line.

89
Q

Reliability

A

The consistency of a test.

90
Q

Research hypothesis

A

A statement of inequality between two variables.

See Null hypothesis

91
Q

Sample

A

A subset of a population.

See Population

92
Q

Sampling error

A

The difference between sample and population values.

93
Q

Scales of measurement

A

Different ways of categorizing measurement outcomes: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

94
Q

Scattergram or scatterplot

A

A plot of paired data points on an x-axis and y-axis, used to visually represent a correlation.

95
Q

Significance level

A

The risk set by the researcher for rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true.

See Statistical significance

96
Q

Simple analysis of variance

A

A test for the difference between two or more means.

A simple analysis for variance (or ANOVA) has only one independent variable, whereas a factorial analysis of variance tests the means of more than one independent variable. One-way analysis of variance looks for differences between the means of more than two groups.

See Analysis of variance and One-way analysis of variance

97
Q

Skew or skewness

A

The quality of a distribution that defines the disproportionate frequency of certain scores.

A longer right tail than left corresponds to a smaller number of occurrences at the high end of the distribution; this isk positively sewed distribution.

A shorter right tail than left corresponds to a larger number of occurrences at the hight end of the distribution; this is a negatively skewed distribution.

98
Q

Source table

A

An analysis of variance summary table that lists sources of variance.

99
Q

Standard deviation

A

The average amount of variability in a set of scores or the scores average deviation from the mean.

100
Q

Standard error of estimate

A

A measure of accuracy in prediction that reflects variability about the regression line.

See Error in prediction

101
Q

Standard score

A

A raw score that is adjusted for the mean and standard deviation of the distribution from which the raw score comes.

(See z score)

102
Q

Statistical significance

A

The risk set by the researcher for rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true.

(See Significance level)

103
Q

Statistics

A

A set of tools and techniques used to describe, organize, and interpret information or data.

104
Q

Test of independence

A

A chi-square test of two dimensions or more that examines whether the distribution of frequencies on a variable is independent of other variables.

105
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

A type of reliability that examines a test’s consistency over time.

106
Q

Test statistic value

A

The value that results from the application of a statistical test.

(See Obtained value)

107
Q

Trend line

A

The line drawn based on values in a regression equation. Also known as a regression line.

108
Q

True score

A

The score that, if it could be observed, would reflect the actual ability or behavior being measured.

Also known as Observed score.

109
Q

Two-tailed test

A

A nondirectional test, reflecting a nondirectional hypothesis.

110
Q

Type I error

A

The probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true.

111
Q

Type II error​

A

The probability of accepting a null hypothesis when it is false.

112
Q

Unbiased estimate

A

A conservative estimate of a population parameter.

113
Q

Validity

A

How well a test measures what it says it does.

114
Q

Variability

A

How much scores differ from one another or, put another way, the amount of spead or dispersion in a set of scores.

115
Q

Variance

A

The square of the standard deviation and another measure of a distribution’s spread or dispersion.

116
Q

Y1 or Y prime

A

The predicted Y value in a regression equation.

117
Q

z score

A

A raw score that is adjusted for the mean and standard deviation of the distribution from which the raw score comes.

See Standard score

MATH 1342 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (14 decks)

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