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Classics - Rome: Religion And Belief > State Religion > Flashcards

State Religion Flashcards

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1
Q

Definition of The Nature of Roman State Religion

A
  • State organisation was crucial to religious practise in Rome
  • The Romans believed that the State could only prosper if the gods were on their side so the state took over the organisation of worshipping the gods to win the gods’ favour and ensure their own success
  • The State accepted responsibility for the organisation of religion as the two, state and religion, went hand in hand and to the Roman mind, they could not be separated
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2
Q

What they did in The Nature of Roman State Religion

A
  • Respect for the gods
  • Prayer, sacrifice etc for protection
  • No personal appeal
  • No emotional appeal
  • No code of behaviour
  • No spiritual strengthening
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3
Q

Nature of Early Roman State Religion

A
  • Numina (spirits) were in everything that happened
  • The good will of the spirits meant;
    -successful crops
    -good health
  • safety in battle
  • prosperity for the family
  • Knowing how to contact the spirits was important; doing it incorrectly would result in bad things happening
  • A contrast between men and the gods
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4
Q

where did the Nature of Early Roman State Religion come from

A
  • Native Italian and local beliefs
  • Etruscan influences from the north of Italy
  • Greek influences
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5
Q

why they did Nature of Roman State Religion

A
  • State religion is very important
  • The success of the state; favour of the gods
  • A collective worship; not left to individuals
  • Issues of state and religion were interconnected (separate today)
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6
Q

What they did in Roman State Religion- with latin

A
  • Rituals; prayer, sacrifice and festivals all important to keep peace with the gods
  • Pax deorum: peace with the gods
  • Do ut des: I give so that you give
  • quid pro quo - something for something

These show the contractual nature of Roman religion

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7
Q

What they did in Roman State Religion- prayer/protection/no private comfort

A
  • State priests prayed and sacrificed to the state gods
  • Preservation and protection of the state
  • There was no private comfort or appeal in state religion for the individal
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8
Q

The Nature of the gods - examples of gods

A

Roman name - Jupiter - Greek Equivalent - Zeus and his power is King of the gods

Roman name - Neptune - Greek equivalent - Poseidon - god of the sea

Roman name - Venus - Greek equivalent - Aphrodite - goddess of love

All the mythology, the stories surrounding these Olympian figures is Greek, Roman myths relate only to their own native spirits and heroes

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9
Q

The Nature of the gods

A
  • Polytheism; belief in many gods
  • The Romans were polytheistic
  • Anthropomorphism; The gods were portrayed as human men or women but were taller, more handsome, stronger and didn’t age
  • They were subject to certain natural laws identical to those of the human world; they could reproduce, the needed food, they were subject to mortal emotions eg. Love, jealously, unlike humans they were immortal
  • They had human characteristics
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10
Q

Rituals of Worship

A
  • The Romans used many different ways to contact their gods
  • These were known as rituals of worship
  • The Romans would ask the gods for their blessings and advice through rituals of worship and these were particularly important for the state.
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11
Q

Rituals of Worship - prayer

A
  • When a Roman prayed, he had to ensure that:
  • he used the correct name of the god or spirit, he selected the appropriate function of the god, e.g. ‘Apollo medice - Apollo doctor if he wanted him to cure a disease,
  • he did not ask for too much thereby offending the god,
  • he used the correct wording: nothing could be left out; words had to be in the correct order
  • small bells would be run to attract the attention of the god
  • flutes played to drown out possible curses or bad noise
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12
Q

Rituals of Worship - Who carried out State Prayers

A
  • They were fixed and formal; so much so that if a priest made any mistakes, he had to repeat the prayer plus another prayer asking the god for pardon
  • At official ceremonies, a priest would recite the prayer line by line and the official would repeat it
  • Generals in Rome and important politicians would often lead state prayers
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13
Q

Rituals of Worship - Problems with prayer

A
  • Some Romans were confused as to which god or goddess to address in their prayers; this was most likely because there were so many gods and goddesses. An example of this is from the Roman poet Horace who when praying for the prosperity of Rome, does not know whether to pray to Jupiter, Minerva, Apollo or Vesta
  • There were some gods who were never addressed by name because they were considered to be too powerful, these were known as the Nefandi
  • There were no guarantees that prayers would be answered by the gods, but it was more likely that they would be answered if they had been answered in the past
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14
Q

Rituals of Worship - How important were prayers?

A
  • For many Romans there was a constant anxiety to establish contact with the gods, the gods had control over how easy and / or difficult your life was in the Roman world
  • Because the prayers were so detailed and specific because the Romans believed that they worked. They spent a lot of time ensuring that they were correct which tells us that they thought there was a serious chance that a god might assist them
  • People could use prayers to make themselves look good - they could be reared for their loyalty to the god / goddesses, the source below shows this: ‘Phoebus, if i worshipped you and still do worship you, grant my request’ Ovid
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15
Q

Rituals of Worship - Votive Offerings

A
  • These were gifts made to the gods by individuals or by states either before or after a favour
  • A votive offering had to be made aloud before witnesses and accompanied by prayer
  • If the prayer was fulfilled, it was necessary that the individual concerned gave the offerings promised
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16
Q

Rituals of Worship - Votive Offerings

A
  • Votive offerings were common amongst the Romans
  • A person would promise a good some sort of offering if things went well, e.g if someone recovered from an illness or came home safely from battle
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17
Q

Rituals of Worship - Reasons for Sacrifices

A
  • To ask the god for help
  • To thank the god for help
  • to celebrate an occasion
  • the ancient gods were believed to ‘do’ things eg they repelled diseases and helped ensure safe births. Sacrifices were believed that it fuelled the vitality of the god/goddess
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18
Q

Rituals of Worship - what gifts could be sacrificed and types of Sacrifice

A

Gifts to the gods included:
- blood sacrifice
- valuable articles eg weapons after a battle
- temples
- statues
- food, drink eg fruit, cheese, ‘salted meal’, honey, milk, wine for libation
- inscriptions eg stones, altars erected by soldiers

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19
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrifice Who would conduct one?

A
  • It was mostly men who conducted sacrifices in the Roman world, but sometimes women
  • Often general would conduct a sacrifice or lead a prayer before battle or war
  • Politicians would offer sacrifices or lead a prayer before decisions of state
  • Priests to specific gods would conduct sacrifices daily
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20
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrifice; The Principles of life

A

The most effective sacrifice contained a ‘principle of life’ - this could be something which helped sustain life such as food or liquid or it could be a living animal;
- food, drink eg fruit, cheese, ‘salted meal’, honey, milk, wine for libation, these were the most common sacrifices because the poor people in Roman society could access these materials with greater ease and without having to spend as much money
- Blood sacrifice; this was the most effective type of sacrifice as it was a living creature

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21
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrifice Libation

A
  • the English word ‘libation’ derives from the Latin libatio, an act of pouring
  • In Roman religion the libation was an act of worship in the form of a liquid offering, most often unmixed wine and perfumed oil
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22
Q

Rituals of Worship - State Sacrifice

A
  • At festivals, magistrates with the help of priests performed blood sacrifices
  • There were rules concerning the type of victim;
  • white beasts for gods of the upper air
  • black beasts for gods of the underworld
  • male victims for gods
  • female victims for goddesses
  • certain victims for certain gods eg a horse for mars
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23
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrificial Ceremony

A

The sacrifice was made on the altar outside the temple.
The ceremony included the following:
- Procession made its way to the altar
- Vicitms horns were decorated with ribbons
- priests washed their hands from a special bowl
- silence, except for the flute
- priests covered their head and wore a toga whilst sprinkling salted meal between the horns of the victim and on the knife
- wine was poured over the victims head
- the ribbons were removed from the victim

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24
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrificial Ceremony

A
  • Prayer to the god
  • one attendant led the beast to the altar
  • another attendant said ‘I do strike’ and struck the beast with an axe
  • the knife man slit its throat, holding the head upwards if the sacrifice was for heavenly god, downward if for a god of the underworld
  • the interal organs were removed for examination
  • if they had no defects, they were cut up and burned for the god
  • If there were any problem at all during the sacrifice eg a defect in the liver or the best wasn’t willing, additional offerings had to be made to the god
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25
Q

Rituals of Worship - Sacrificial Ceremony

A
  • Sacrifice took place outside the temple
  • Priest conducting sacrifice with head veiled
  • Ceremonial bowl used to wash hands in
  • surrounded by other religious/political officials showing the importance of the event
  • victim being led to sacrifice
  • priest ready with an axe to strike the victim
  • flute player - used to drown out noise
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26
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens

A
  • Divination and Omens were ways of contacting the gods to ask for advice, support or to see whether their prayers and sacrifices were suitable for the gods
  • The Romans believed the gods made their will to men in the form of two types of signs: Signa impetrativa ie signs asked for or signa oblativa ie signs sent unasked for
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27
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens

A
  • Priests called augurs advised magistrates about the meaning of signs
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28
Q

Roman State Religion - Signa Impetrativa; Taking the auspices or watching the birds

A
  • Procedure;the magistrate watched a certain area of the sky for any sign of birds
  • The augur blindfolded, interpreted the signs e.g the eagle and vulture gave signs in their flights, the raven, crown and owl in their cries
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29
Q

Roman State Religion - Signa Impetrativa; Story of Romulus and Remus

A
  • Foundation of Rome
  • Romulus and Remus arrived at the Palatine Hill
  • They had an argument over the site of the city
  • Romulus – Palatine Hill Remus – Aventine Hill
  • Settled their argument by taking the auspices (watching birds) and finding out the will of the gods
  • Romulus went to the Palatine and Remus to the Aventine
  • Romulus saw 12 vultures and Remus saw 6 vultures
  • The gods, it was decided, favoured Romulus because he saw more vultures
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30
Q

Roman State Religion - Signa Impetrativa - Observing birds eating

A
  • Special sacred chickens kept in cages were taken into battle for consultation
  • They were observed at their meal before important events
  • If they ate greedily, this was a good omen
  • If they refused food or flew away, this was a bad omen
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31
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Story of Claudius Pulcher

A
  • During the First Punic War, Publius Claudius Pulcher turned to the sacred chickens for approval of his plan to launch a suprise attack on the Carthaginian fleet
  • However when they did not eat he threw them into the sea, afterwards his army was annihilated
  • He returned to Rome humiliated and was most likely exiled
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32
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Watching lightening (Jupiters sign)

A
  • It was a good omen if lightening flashed on the left
  • bad omen if flashed on right
  • Lightening watching was open to abuse and corruption
  • Events could be cancelled if people claimed to see lightening
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33
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Signa oblativa

A
  • The gods make their will know by strange and abnormal happenings
  • Story of Servius Tullius; a ring of fire seen blazing around his head while sleeping, this was taken as a sign of that the boy wears destined to do great things
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34
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Haruspicium

A
  • Another means of consulting the gods’ will, privately as well as publicly was haruspicium, examine the livers and other organs of the victim after sacrifice
  • There was a society of 60 recognised haruspices or soothsayers who were able to decide whether or not the evidence of the livers showed good or bad omens
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35
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Examining the Entrails

A
  • The entrails of a sacrificed animal, compromised of, according to Cicero, the gall bladder, liver, heart and lungs
  • The entrails were exposed for litatio (divine approval) as part of a Roman religious sacrifice but were “read” in the context of the disciplina Etrusca (a guide book on how to read entrails)
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36
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Examining the Entrails

A
  • As a product of Roman sacrifice the entrails and blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat of the animal was shared among human beings in a communal meal
  • The entrails of bovine (cows and bulls) victims were usually stewed in a pot, while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers
  • When the deity’s portion was cooked, it was sprinkled with mola salsa (ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering
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37
Q

Roman State religion - Omens and Divinations - Examining the Entrails

A
  • There were set rules for the interpretation of the entrails, and haruspex carried with him a little bronze model of a liver for comparison, with the different areas showing the names of their various controlling gods.
  • Once the liver, heart, kidneys and intestines had been thoroughly examined as to their shape, colouring and any unusual marks, and it had been ascertained that nothing of ill-omen had been encountered, they were burned on a makeshift altar.
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38
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens - Examining the Entrails

A
  • The rest of the animal was butchered and distributed to the people.
  • The examination of entrails often happened before military battles or important decision of state.
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39
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens - Dreams

A
  • Gods were also supposed to communicate with mankind in dreams.
  • As with all dreams, it was difficult to interpret what was true and false.
  • Therefore, it was better to consult a professional for advice.
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40
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens - Sibyline Books

A
  • A set of books
  • Written in Greek
  • Composed by the Sibyl (a prophetess of Apollo at Cumae)
  • Consulted at times of crisis (war, plague, natural disaster) by the 15 men (quindecimviri)
  • They looked for the correct instructions from the books
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41
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens - Sibyline Books

A
  • During the 2nd Punic War, Sibylline books instructed that the Roman should import the goddess from Cybele from the east to help in the war
  • Original books were destroyed in 83 BC
  • Replaced in 76 BC
  • Consulted until 400 AD – officially burnt
  • Roman did not consult oracles like the Greeks (Delphi)
  • Words of the oracle were through the books
42
Q

Roman State Religion - Divination and Omens - Sibyline Books

A
  • We do not know what was written in the books
  • We do know that the advice of the books was always taken, and taken seriously, be the government.
43
Q

Roman State Religion - Priests

A
  • Close connection between religion and the state through the priesthoods
  • Roman priests were officials of the state not like modern priests
  • Roman priests were like civil servants held for life and subject to public election often had political significance
  • A Roman priest did not dedicate his whole life to the gods the position was an honour in addition to normal work
44
Q

Roman State Religion - Priests

A
  • Pontifex Maximus was originally the king
  • Then a position of high honour after the abolition of kings
  • Position of the emperor in later times
  • Hierarchy structure to priest offices
45
Q

Roman State Religion - Priests

A
  1. Pontifex Maximus
  2. Augurs and Haruspices
  3. Vestal Virgins
46
Q

Roman State Religion - College of Pontiffs

A
  • Senior priests
  • Assist magistrates in all religious matters – politically influential
  • Made decisions on what to do with information from augurs (omens)
  • Supervision of state calendar, religious festivals and holidays
  • Pontifex Maximus was the leader of the college of pontiffs
  • Julius Caesar had been Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC used powers to reform the Roman religious calendar
47
Q

Roman State Religion - College of Pontiffs

A
  • 2nd most important college work with pontiffs but separate identity
  • Interpreted the meaning of omens (pontiffs decided what to do with the information)
  • Hooded robe and carrying staff
  • Main duty: observe signa impetrative (bird watching; chickens; lightening) searching for the will of the gods’
  • Called in to interpret signs before large political/military decisions
  • System was open to abuse – some augurs acted in their own self-interest
48
Q

Roman State Religion - Haruspices

A
  • Priests who examined the entrails of animals
  • Very old, seen as an ‘outsider’ to the traditional Roman religious practices
  • Many politically motivated men were haruspices to show the gods were on their side when they interpreted signs
  • Popular among upper class Romans – sent their boys to be trained at Eturuia
49
Q

Roman State Religion - Quindecimviri/15 men

A
  • Quindecimviri/15 men
  • Conducting sacrifices
  • guarding and consulting the Sibylline Books
  • Oversee activities of foreign cults in Rome
  • They were generally tolerant of other cults
  • State did try to ensure there was no dangerous excess in their activities
50
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins

A
  • Priestesses for the goddess Vesta
  • 6 girls chosen between age 6-10
  • Noble Roman families
  • No disabilities and were in good health
  • Chosen to tend to the sacred flame of Vesta
  • 10 years training to be a priestess
  • 10 years being a priestess
  • 10 years training another girl
51
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins

A
  • Free to leave and marry after 30 years as a Vestal
  • Harsh punishments for committing crimes; taking a lover, death by live burial
52
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins Eligibility

A
  • Vestal Virgins were originally the daughters of noble free born Romans but from AD 5 they could be the daughters of freedmen
  • Both parents had to be living and not divorced
  • They were chosen by lot from 20 candidates selected by the Pontifex Maximus
53
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins Duties

A
  • to make food offerings on the hearth everyday
  • to tend the sacred fire of Vesta
  • to ensure the fire never went out
  • to attend religious ceremonies of state
  • to guard valuables kept in the temple
  • to look after the wills of important people e.g. the emperor.
54
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins Legal Status

A
  • No longer subject to patria potestas control by father or family
  • Under the control of the Pontfex Maximus. Patria potestas transferred to him and he had the power of life and death over the virgins
  • No need for guardian, they could own property and make a will.
55
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins Privileges

A
  • Virgins received a dowry and stipend (allowance)
  • They could make a will
  • They were free to leave the order and marry after 30 years – few did.
  • They could attend religious banquets
  • They were carried through the streets on a litter at public festivals and they were attended by a lector
  • They could annul the death sentence if they met a prisoner on his way to execution
56
Q

Roman State Religion - Vestal Virgins Punishments

A
  • Flogging for less serious crimes e.g. letting temple fire go out
  • Buried alive for loss of virginity
57
Q

Roman State Religion - Temple of Vesta

A
  • The temple of Vesta was very important to the Romans
  • sacred fire was kept burning
  • some objects very sacred to the Roman people were kept – an ancient statue supposed to have fallen from the sky onto Troy and brought from there by Aeneas, ancestor of the Roman race.
  • held the household gods of the Roman people and was where people went for the sacred meal for sacrifices.
  • The temple was circular.
58
Q

Roman State Religion - Roman Temples

A
  • Roman temples stood on a platform and were surrounded by a colonnade.
  • The central room was the ‘cella’ where the god’s statue was housed.
  • The recess was dark, lit only by oil lamps. Behind the ‘cella’ were the rooms of the temple officials and the treasury.
  • In front of the temple stood the altar with the god’s name inscribed on it and possibly some of the sacrificial utensils.
  • All ceremonies took place at this altar outside the temple.
59
Q

Roman State Religion - Roman Temples

A
  • Colonade running round the temple
  • Stairs leading up to temple
  • Altar; for making sacrifices to the gods, always outside
  • Cella; inner part of temple
  • Treasury under the temple for storing valuable objects
60
Q

Roman State Religion - Temple of Jupiter

A
  • The temple of Jupiter was one of the most important temples.
  • It stood overlooking the Roman Forum, which was where the political and business centre of Rome was.
  • At the start of each year the consuls held the first meeting outside the temple of Jupiter; he was the patron god of Rome and looked over everything that went on.
  • In the temple of Jupiter were kept the Sibylline Books until Augustus moved them to the temple of Apollo
61
Q

Roman State Religion - Reasons for building a temple

A
  • as a result of a crisis; build or promise to build a temple to a deity so as to get help
  • to celebrate a victory
  • to house a holy thing, e.g. Vesta’s temple housed the hearth fire
  • for political reasons, to get votes
62
Q

Roman State Religion - Reasons for building a temple

A
  • Augustus was Rome’s First Emperor
  • He rebuilt or repaired 82 temples which had been neglected.
  • He said the state was suffering because the gods were being neglected.
63
Q

Roman State Religion - Religious Festivals

A
  • The Romans held religious festivals throughout the year.
  • Some of these were on fixed dates (like our Christmas) and some were moveable (like our Easter).
64
Q

Roman State Religion - What did Roman Festivals look like?

A
  • The festival would always include:
  • public prayer, conducted by state priests
  • processions and parades
  • sacrifices and taking of the auspices
  • music and feasting
  • public games (not competitive sports, as in Greek festivals, but spectator events with gladiators and animal fights )
65
Q

Roman State Religion - Roman Festivals

A
  • Most of the festivals dated from earliest times, when Rome was a simple agricultural community.
  • For city dwellers of later periods, the origins of the festivals would be a mystery, but the state continued to carry out the customary programme of festivals in order to placate the gods.
  • Most ordinary people of our period just enjoyed the holiday and went to see the games.
66
Q

Roman State Religion - The Lupercalia

A
  • The Lupercalia took place in February
  • it was one of the most popular festivals
  • its origins were unknown, and we do not even know the name of the god in whose honour it was held
  • it was possibly Faunus, a countryside god.
67
Q

Roman State Religion - The Lupercalia - What Happened at the Fetsival?

A
  • Two teams of well-born young men – the Luperci – met together in a cave on the Palatine Hill.
  • They sacrificed goats and dogs.
  • They had a feast and probably got very drunk.
  • Smearing themselves with the victims’ blood, they dressed up in the animals’ skins and ran a race around the foot of the hill.
  • They whipped any women they met with strips of goat skin, to encourage fertility.
68
Q

Roman State Religion - The Lupercalia - What Happened at the Fetsival?

A
  • Huge crowds came to watch and there was drunken disorder.
  • The rites possibly refer to an ancient ceremony of ‘beating the bounds’, possibly to protect a farm from wolves (lupus = wolf), and to fertility rituals of the countryside.
  • The festival went back to the days when Rome was a small pastoral community.
  • It was intended to bring fertility, purify the city and drive away evil influences.
69
Q

Roman State Religion - The Lupercalia - The Luperci

A
  • The Lupercalia had its own priesthood, the Luperci (“brothers of the wolf”),
  • whose institution and rites were attributed either to the Arcadian culture-hero Evander, or to Romulus and Remus, formally shepherds who had each established a group of followers.
70
Q

Roman State Religion - The Lupercalia - The Luperci

A
  • The Luperci were young men, usually between the ages of 20 and 40.
  • They formed two religious (associations) based on ancestry:
  • the Quinctiliani (named after gens Quinctia) and the Fabiani (named after gens Fabia).
  • Each college was headed by a magister.
71
Q

Roman State Religion - Why The Lupercalia

A
  • The Lupercalia was an important time for many Romans as it was so old and traditional.
  • Many Romans did not know what the origins of the festival were, but it was practiced annually and seemed to be very enjoyable.
  • For women, it was a chance to seek help from the gods.
  • Having children was a very important issue for Roman women and this festival helped them to gain favour from the gods and to assist the process of becoming pregnant or having a safe birth.
72
Q

Roman State Religion - Saturnalia

A
  • This took place from the 19th to the 23rd December each year in honour of Saturn, a god of agriculture and the father of Jupiter.
  • A public sacrifice was held in front of his temple and feasting followed.
  • A representation of Saturn was set on a couch so that he could participate.
  • During the festival the courts were closed, no criminal was punished and war was interrupted.
73
Q

Roman State Religion - Saturnalia

A
  • There was a general atmosphere of good-fun.
  • Gambling, which was normally illegal, was allowed for all even slaves.
  • Small gifts were exchanged (very similar to our version of Christmas).
  • People shouted out “io Saturnalia!” and many wore the pilleus, a felt cap symbolic of freedom.
  • Those families that could afford it sacrificed a pig.
  • Slaves were given a feast by their masters and allowed some freedoms for the festival
74
Q

Roman State Religion - Horace on the Saturnalia

A
  • The Saturnalia also permitted slaves to disrespect their masters without the threat of a punishment.
  • It was a time for free speech: the Augustan poet Horace calls it “December liberty”.
  • In two satires set during the Saturnalia, Horace has a slave offer sharp criticism to his master.
  • Everyone knew, however, that the equalising of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end
75
Q

Roman State Religion - What was the appeal of the Lupercalia?

A
  • promoted traditional Roman religion
  • promoted idea of community – people gathering
  • enjoyment of sacrifices (not for everyone though)
  • promotion of fertility and safe birth
  • spirit of good fun - dressing up in animal hides, whipping women
  • opportunity to worship a specific god (name unknown)
76
Q

Roman State Religion - What was the appeal of the Saturnalia?

A
  • promoted traditional Roman religion
  • specific worship of Saturn at home and at the temple
  • enjoyment of gift exchanges
  • change in the social norms (inversion of master and slave)
  • something to look forward to in the winter
  • games, dressing up, gambling, feasting
  • slaves given time off to relax
77
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - From the Republic to the Empire

A
  • After nearly five hundred years as a republic, Rome, following a series of civil wars, became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, with one man, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus at its head.
  • Born Gaius Octavius, he was the great nephew of the politician and general Gaius Julius Caesar, who adopted him as his son in his will.
  • In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus (which had religious overtones of “revered” and “majestic”) and that is how he is usually known.
78
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Religious Reforms Under Augustus

A
  • Augustus was concerned about the neglect of religion and decline in morality which had grown up during the disruption of the civil wars.
  • He decided to take some action:
  • He repaired temples and built new ones.
  • He made sure all the festivals were held and all the priesthoods filled.
  • He became a member of the various colleges of priests and had himself made pontifex maximus or chief priest.
79
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Religious Reforms Under Augustus

A
  • No doubt all this reflected his own religious feelings, but it was also politically useful as it associated someone occupying a very new political position as “princeps” or first citizen, with traditional Roman ways.
80
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Emperor Worship throughout the Empire

A
  • The Romans had acquired an extensive empire.
  • In the eastern part of it, in the cities of Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor, it was common for living rulers to be given honours like the gods.
  • For some people this may have been genuine worship of the ruler as a deity, for others it may have been a way of showing loyalty and special gratitude.
81
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult -The 1st Emperor – Augustus

A
  • Unsurprisingly, these eastern provinces wanted to worship Augustus as a living god, especially where he was seen as having brought about peace and prosperity.
  • This was not seen as a Roman thing to do, but as it was the custom in the east, cities were given permission to build temples and altars to Rome and Augustus.
  • In this way Augustus was linked to the goddess who personified Rome.
  • Roman citizens were expected to honour Rome, but not to worship Augustus himself.
82
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult -The 1st Emperor – Augustus

A
  • In the western provinces such as Spain and Gaul, altars to Rome and Augustus were set up at provincial centres.
  • They were a way of showing acceptance of Romanisation and loyalty to the emperor.
83
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Augustus

A
  • In Rome itself, worship of a living man as a god was neither acceptable to tradition nor to the feelings of the old ruling class.
  • Here Augustus only allowed his genius to be worshipped and it was even included with other gods in official oaths.
84
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Augustus

A
  • A genius is a spirit which is individual to a person like a guardian angel and could be worshipped / prayed to after the death of a person.
  • The emperors often had their living genii worshipped
85
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Augustus

A
  • This was in keeping with the way that members of a household already worshipped the genius of the paterfamilias
  • he received the title Pater Patriae (Father of the Fatherland) in 2 BC.
86
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Augustus

A
  • Augustus associated himself with the goddesses of Peace and Fortune by giving his title to them – Pax Augusta and Fortuna Augusta.
87
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Augustus

A
  • Augustus never claimed divinity in his lifetime, but, as the adopted son of Julius Caesar, who had been deified after his assassination, he did claim to be the son of a god.
88
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Cult - Worship of Emperors

A
  • members of the Julii clan to which he belonged were supposed to be descended from Venus herself. He died on the 19th August 14 AD.
  • On the 17th September the Senate decreed that he should be accepted among the gods of the state.
89
Q

Roman State Religion - Imperial Worship

A
  • Subsequent emperors largely followed the lead of Augustus in their approach to the imperial cult and most were deified by the Senate on their deaths.
  • The attitude taken depended very much on the character of the emperor and the political feelings at the time.
90
Q

Roman State Religion - TIBERIUS – 2ND ROMAN EMPEROR

A
  • Tiberius accepted his position and title as emperor with apparent reluctance.
  • Tiberius was a capable and efficient administrator, however could not match Augustus’ extraordinary energy and charisma.
  • With a self-deprecation that may have been entirely genuine, he encouraged the cult to his father, and discouraged his own.
  • After much wrangling, he allowed a single temple in Smyrna to himself and the genius of the Senate in 26 AD; eleven cities had competed –with some vehemence and even violence –for the honour
91
Q

Roman State Religion - CALIGULA – 3RD ROMAN EMPEROR

A
  • Set up a temple to himself with priests and sacrificial victims.
  • In the temple was a life-size statue of himself in gold.
  • He had statues of himself setup in Jewish temples and synagogues.
  • Very rich people obtained the honour of being chief-priest under Caligula.
  • His reported sexual relations with his sister Drusilla and her deification after death aroused scorn from later historians; after Caligula’s death, her cult was simply allowed to fade.
  • Caligula killed by a member of his own bodyguard
  • he thought he was immortal and could not die
92
Q

Roman State Religion - CLAUDIUS – 4TH ROMAN EMPEROR

A
  • Claudius (Caligula’s uncle) intervened to limit the damage to the imperial house and those who had conspired against it and had Caligula’s public statues discreetly removed.
  • Claudius had a very different approach / attitude compared to Caligula:
  • Refused a cult of his own genius repeatedly –this might have offended the senate BUT it did show how important the emperor was
  • Refused to be worshipped by the Alexandrians in Egypt
  • Claudius was made into a god after he died, not while he was alive
93
Q

Roman State Religion - How important were prayers?

A
  • for many Romans there was a constant anxiety to establish contact with the gods; the gods had control over how easy and/or difficult your life was in the Roman World
  • Because the prayers were so detailed and specific because the Romans believe that they worked, they spent a lot of time ensuring that they were correct which tells us that they thought there was a serious chance that a god might assist them
  • people could use prayers to make themselves look good; they could be rewarded for their loyalty by the god to goddess
94
Q

Roman State Religion - How important were sacrifices?

A
  • The most vital part of the animals blood sacrifices were educated as a gift to the gods; this would be the heart, liver, gall bladder, kidneys etc. This was quite convenient to the Romans as these were the least edible parts of the animal, the rest would be cooked and offered to attendees of the sacrifice
  • Sacrfices were often highly emotional experiences, in the same way people today can become emotional at religious ceremonies, particularly ones which involve an element of death
  • The aim of every sacrifice was to help ensure that the gods were listening and waiting to grant favour to the person offering the sacrifice
  • Caligula offered up 160,000 cattle to the gods over a period of 3 months
95
Q

PRAYER - Counter-Argument

A
  • some Romans were confused as to
    which god or goddess to address in
    their prayers. This was most likely
    because there were so many gods and
    goddesses. An example of this comes
    from the Roman poet Horace who,
    when praying for the prosperity of
    Rome, does not know whether to pray
    to Jupiter, Minerva, Apollo or Vesta.
  • there were some gods who were never
    addressed by name because they were
    considered to be too powerful. These
    were known as the nefandi.
  • there were no guarantees that prayers
    would be answered by the gods, but it
    was more likely that they would be
    answered if they had been answered in the past
96
Q

SACRIFICE - Counter-Argument

A
  • It was very difficult to know if they sacrifice you made was enough for the god. Some gods and religious festivals demanded a huge sacrifice, but there are other examples of smaller sacrifices for day-to-day religious practices
97
Q

OMENS - Analysis

A

-We know that the practice of augury was taken seriously because a man called Claudius Centumalus built a house which blocked the view of the auguraculum (the dedicated spaces for observing the flight of birds and taking the auspices). He was ordered to take down this house. Many educated Romans, such as the emperor Augustus, believed in the importance of the auspices.
- Always took place before large battles and business of state. Story of Claudius Pulcher showing the dangers of not observing the signs from the gods.

  • When lightning was seen, all state business had to be stopped as it was thought that the gods, particularly Jupiter, were not happy.
  • Examining entrails was considered to be so important that there were models of livers made with names of all the gods etched onto specific parts. This way, if a particular part of the liver had a flaw, the Romans would know who to pray to
98
Q

OMENS - Counter-Argument

A
  • However, the whole system of taking the auspices was open to abuse by unscrupulous individuals who might invent or distort messages to suit their own ends, and this did go on. Cicero, who himself was an augur, tried to discredit the practice of augury. He claimed that it was unreliable and open to personal abuse.
  • Lightning watching was hugely open to abuse and corruption. It was often considered a tactic for getting out of business you didn’t want to take part in. It was claimed that ‘if you
    look hard enough, you will find lightning.’
99
Q

OMENS - Analysis

A
  • Romans did take dreams seriously e.g. the Roman philosopher Lucretius dedicates a lot of space in his book to dreams.
  • Taken very seriously be the Roman
    government. Were consulted without due reason and the advice was always taken by the government
100
Q

OMENS - Counter-Argument

A
  • There is little direct evidence to say that dreams had a major influence over peoples daily lives.
  • Dreams were never official part of state religion, this was because it was a very
    private connection with the gods but it was also very difficult to verify the validity of a dream.
  • We do not know what was actually written down in these books, so it is difficult to
    analyse the messages. It is believed that they Would be ambiguous so that they were difficult to prove wrong
101
Q

How important was Roman State Religion?

A
  • The festivals ceremonies and offerings were believed to keep the gods on their side and ensure success and prosperity for the State as a whole and the individual within it
  • The festivals provided relaxation from work with feasting and the opportunity to watch or participate in colourful processions and ceremonies
  • at some festivals drama, gladiator and wild beast shows or chariot racing were staged for free entertainment
102
Q

How important was Roman State Religion?

A
  • As most people shared the common religion, it fostered a community spirit and a pride and confidence in Rome and its achievements, it was a unifying and cohesive factor in life
  • The Romans were lovers of tradition and thought it important to follow the customs of their ancestors who had made Rome great with the help of the gods
  • Some of the people in Ancient Rome used the offices of religion to help promote their own agenda - ex Julius Caesar was made Pontifex Maximus to help climb to the position of consul and the dictator
  • There were people who thought that many of the rituals of worship were silly and that you could not contact the gods or divine their will

Classics - Rome: Religion And Belief (5 decks)

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