Stalinism, Politics And Control 1929 - 1941

Question 1

Machinery of state terror

Answer 1

Emerged under Lenin who established Cheka in December 1917 and from 1922-1934 security functions carried out by OGPU.
Stalin extended terror - expected Trotsky from USSR and removed bukharin from the politburo in 1929

Question 2

Early purges

Answer 2

1930, Stalin expelled some of his former supporters for criticising excesses of collectivisation
Shakhty trial 1928, managers and technicians at Charley coal mine questioned pace of industrialisation and were handed snow trials, were executed + gosplan was purged of critics end of 1st FYP - renewed signs of opposition particularly due to 1932- famines

Question 3

Ryutin platform

Answer 3

circulated a 200 page document calling for Stalins dismissal and an end to forced collectivisation in march 1932 - stalin called for execution and although he was overruled (showing he did not have full control yet) Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others were spelled for failing to report the document

Question 4

NKVD

Answer 4

USSR internal security passed to NKVD in 1934 led by Yagoda and then Yezhov
ordinary police under control of NKVD and labour camps reorganised into national network - Gulags

Question 5

17th party congress

Answer 5

split between stalin and others who spoke about stopping forced grain seizures
title of general secretary was abolished and replaced with ‘secretary of equal rank’ for kirov and stalin

Question 6

kirovs murder 1934

Answer 6

december 1934 by nikolayev- stalin was quick to claim this was a Trotskyite plot
decree then published giving Yagoda power to arrest, execute anyone found guilty of treason plotting - over 100 party members shot
Jan 1935 - Zinoviev and Kamenev imprisoned

Question 7

the show trials

Answer 7

tool in Stalinist russia - public trials to justify disposal of enemies of the state while still retaining popularity, predetermined outcome - task of NKVD to extract confession
april 1935 - new law passed that children over the age of 12 would be subject to the same punishments as adults
19-24 August 1936 - Zinoviev and Kamenev accused of alliance with Trotsky and plotting to kill Stalin, 14 others accused alongside them, defendants confessed despite no material evidence and were executed
Sept 1936 - Yagoda replaced Yezhov as had not been active enough and failed to secure confession of Rykov and Bukharin

Question 8

Stalin constitution 1936

Answer 8

Drafted by Bukharin
declared that socialism had been achieved
proclaimed USSR as a federation of 11 republics - promised local autonomy to ethnic groups
elections every four years with everyone over the age of 18 having the right to vote, including former people
freedom of speech, right to an education and welfare
these promised rights were largely ignored and central control exercised over republics budgets and little real regional independence

Question 9

mass terror and repression at local levels

Answer 9

July 1937, NKVD Order 00447 drawn up by Yezhov, established small NKVD committees at regional levels. These were to classify Kulaks and anti soviet enemies, work to a system of quotas
an arrest list was drawn up including managers and scientists, in theory these quotas could not be exceeded but in practice it was easy to obtain Yezhovs approval
within a month, over 100,000 had been arrested and 14,000 sent to the Gulags
NKVD became keen to root out those considered dangerous, party officials were often denounced and everyone was encouraged to root out hidden enemies

Question 10

mass terror and repression at central level - Trial of 17, January 1937

Answer 10

17 prominent communists who were accused of plotting with Trotsky, spying and sabotaging industry
13 sentenced to death

Question 11

mass terror and repression at central level - Military purge May- June 1937

Answer 11

fearing a military coup, Stalin ordered the arrest of Tukhachevsky (commissar for defence) - accused of plotting with Trotsky and 6 other top military commanders were executed in June 1937
‘great purge’ of the red armer - 11 war commissars, all but one of senior air force commanders - approx 50% of military officers were executed or imprisoned and around 1/4 of these reinstated by 1940
1937-38, 74 million officers were shot for refusing to approve the execution of people whom the officials believed innocent

Question 12

mass terror and repression at central level - Trial of 21, March 1938

Answer 12

21 prominent communists accused of belonging to a Trotskyite bloc - Bukharin, Rykov, Yagoda and Tomsky (committed suicide before). They faced wild and fabricated claims like plotting to kill Lenin and conspiring with the Germans. Bukharin proved a tough opponent and held out for 3 months until threats were made to his wife and child, only admitted to sum of crimes but not specific allegations, he and 17 others were executed
similar trials occurred throughout rest of USSR - provided an opportunity to settle old scores, remove those stood in the way of a promotion. Order 00447 led lower ranking party members to denounce those above them - 1/3 of all party members had been purged by the end if 1938

Question 13

The Gulags

Answer 13

1930s more Gulags were built to provide cheap labour for Stalin’s projects and house political prisoners. But from 1937 they took on a new and sinister aspect. 800,000 in 1935 to between 5 and 9 mill by 1939
deliberately worked to death or outright murdered, prisoners no longer capable of ‘re-education’ and the possibility of early release due to good behaviour disappeared
conditions in camp were appalling - meagre rations, inadequate clothing, poor and overcrowded accommodation
work expectations were high, physical demands excessive
mortality rates were 4-6 times higher than the rest of the USSR

Question 14

treatment of national minorities

Answer 14

republics were hit by economic change and suffered from a wave of national deportations from 1937
Korean minority deported to Central Asia, Poles and Germans were deported and extensive purges were carried out in newly annexed Poland and Baltic states
1941, over 400,000 Volga Germans deported to Siberia and Central Asia
‘national communists; within republics were purged and the entire leadership of the non-Russian republics was replaced
anti-Semitic attitudes revived, 2 mill Jews incorporated in 1939 due to the invasion of Eastern Poland, many Rabbis were arrested
anti-religious campaigns spread to Ukraine and Belorussia, persecution of Muslims in central Asian republics from 1928

Question 15

end of purges and death of Trotsky

Answer 15

continued well into WW2, pace slowed down after 1938
Yezhovschina had threatened to destabilise the State, industry and administration suffered. Stalin used Yezhov as a scapegoat, accusing him of excessive zeal and at the 18th party congress, declared mass cleansings were no longer needed
Yezhov was arrested, tried in secret and shot in February 1940
August 1940, Trotsky had been tracked down by Stalinist agents in Mexico City and killed by an ice pick to the head. Stalin ensured that the last of the old bolsheviks who might have had a greater claim to leadership had gone

Question 16

responsibility for the terror and purges

Answer 16

little doubt that Stalin was crucial in both starting and stopping the purges. No stranger to violence but little to anticipate scale of terror in 1930s except ruthlessness persecution of peasants during collectivisation
stalin’s wife suicide in 1932 - key moment in industrialisation of terror
stalin was obsessed with reinforcing his own position and eliminating possible rivals, personally responsible for encouraging and ending Purges
many of those anxious about terror did not believe stalin was responsible - cult of personality
- Terror was integral part of communist state - 1917 revolution, Civil war, Stalin just applied more ruthlessly and on a larger scale
-Necessary part of economic change - remove Kulaks, provide slave labour and provide scapegoats
- work of over-zealous officials in provinces who followed their own independent agenda
-response to the real threat of a military coup involving the Germans
-self-escalating, used by individuals who wanted to settle old scores, get rid of rivals and open avenues for promotion

Question 17

impact of the terror and purges

Answer 17

Stalin was in a position of supreme power with absolute control over the party - removed potential rivals and party was compliant tool of Stalin
Central committee had lost power to control membership by expulsion
expulsion of 850,000 members between 1936 and 1937. By 1939, less than 10% of the party had joined before 1920
23,000 officers were shot or dismissed, new officers had to be recruited, difficult to find and train this many - failures in early parts of WW2
deprived of skilled professionals - teachers, engineers etc. persecuted at a time when rapid industrialisation required their expertise

Question 18

impact of Stalinism on the Church

Answer 18

religious schools closed down and teaching of religious creeds forbidden
1929-1940 holy day of Sunday was abolished - 7 day working week
1936 constitution criminalised publication of religious propaganda BUT priests gained the right to vote
large numbers of priests victims of purges and sent to Gulags
muslims property was seized and pilgrimages to Mecca were banned
Jewish schools and synagogues shut down
1941 - 40,000 churches and 25,000 mosques closed
1937 - over half a million still described themselves as religious - pressure not completely worked

Question 19

impact of Stalinism on women

Answer 19

fall in population growth and increase in divorce led to ‘Great retreat’
family became the focus of a new propaganda with Stalin presented as a family man
abortion and contraception banned
more difficult to get a divorce but numbers remained high - 37% Moscow in 1934
adultery was criminalised
new decree enforced against prostitution and homosexuality
numbers working in factories increased

Question 20

impact of Stalinism on youth (education)

Answer 20

central committee decided on a significant change in 1930s - more organised with traditional teaching and discipline
more emphasis on training professionals and for less able increased amounts of practical work
importance of duty and loyalty was fostered at all levels
teachers were given high status and closely watched - encouraged to set high targets under Stakhanovite movement - purged if failed
spread of literacy - 65% before revolution, 1941 = 94% age 9-49 in towns and 86% in countryside - able to absorb propaganda

Question 21

impact of Stalinism on youth (youth organisations)

Answer 21

Komsomol age 10-28 taught communist values
smoking, drinking, religion were discouraged whilst volunteer work was promoted
close links to party and became directly affiliated in 1939, members took an oath to live, study and fight for the fatherland
members were enthusiastic about industrialisation and flocked to projects like Magnitogorsk
demanded full time commitment and chance for social and educational advancement

Question 22

impact of Stalinism on working men

Answer 22

skilled workers = spread of technical education, training opportunities, wage differentials and Stakhanovite movement meant determined and loyal workers could improve themselves
some were able to raise living standards if ready to acquire expertise but income fell back as war approached
unskilled workers = likely to move around from job to job and not stay in one place to not acquire bad working record, crowded family life, petty crime and hard drinking proliferated

Question 23

situation in rural communities

Answer 23

more changes to rural population as had been virtually untouched before collectivisation and no under more central controls regime policed countryside more closely and forced compulsory schooling, rise in literacy = more opportunities for propaganda
basic traditions in rural areas were questioned - time of movement into towns and cities
fear of terror - openness and cooperation in countryside was strained
benefitted from access to machinery, schools and clinics for first time but peasants still viewed as inferior

Question 24

situation in urban communities

Answer 24

shortage of housing and no privacy, whisper as neighbours could overhear, apartment blocks supervised and workers lived in barracks or in their factories
cities were without sewage, street lighting or public transport - despite show projects like moscow metro
water was rationed
increase in hooliganism
overall food consumption in 1933 was lower than 1900 and meat consumption 1/3 of the 1928 figure
many depended on black market for food
1935 - conditions improved, became legal for small trades to operate privately as State could not resolve shortages
problems increased again after 1937 due to bad harvest of 1936

Question 25

urban and rural differences

Answer 25

urban workers coped better in 1930s than peasants - changes were fewer and factory workers had regulated hours and wages, benefit from workplace communities whereas peasants had most of produce taken
reversal in 1941, conditions became very harsh and rationing was reintroduced by peasants had private plots to fall back on

Question 26

socialist man

Answer 26

intent on creating new type of person - dedicated to party and lived and worked for community
well educated and intelligent
not independent thinkers
willingly accepted what the state said thought or attitudes were regarded as a curse
urban creature
building of industrial complexes was influenced by this concept - created an environment a socialist man could flourish in where community took precedence over the individual
from Komsomol to state run and supervised clubs and societies - no room for private life
periodic events - Stalins birthday - to celebrate
these characteristics could be passed on to next generation

Question 27

impact of cultural change

Answer 27

attempt to create socialist man met with varied response - Komsomol members most enthusiastic led attack on bourgeoise values, burning or vandalising non-socialist books or artworks and helped spread ‘proletarian culture’
cultural figures toed party line, Russian writers ‘lost nothing but the right to be bad writers’ - Gorky
many silenced by the regime or remained silent on their own accord
writers sent to work on industrial or agricultural sites
attempt to impose new cultural values fell short of the hope - although How the Steel was Tempered was the most borrowed book from Magnitogorsk library, not representative of the whole of the USSR
suggested only 1/5 of workers wholeheartedly supported Stalinist regime

Question 28

similarities and differences between Lenin’s and Stalin’s USSR

Answer 28

historians much more critical of Stalin , claiming he undermined Lenin’s work
but lenin was still a ruthless leader, some excuse things like Red Terror as a response to desperate situation Russia found itself in, Stalins excesses (espec purges) were far less excusable
Lenin signed death warrants with as little thought as Stalin
Stalin used methods set up by Lenin - internal security - but took to much greater extremes
Stalins hold on the party was achieved by fear and terror whereas Lenin depended on personal reputation more
both adapted policies to what they perceived the needs of the regime at a particular time
Stalin made few contributions to Marxist theory from 1929
Stalin continued and extended Leninism with a focus on social and economic change but met with international situation in 1930s that could not have been foreseen by Lenin

Question 29

cooperation with Germany

Answer 29

established by Treaty of Rapallo 1922 and consolidated by Treaty of Berlin 1926
USSR benefitted from German technical expertise in the modernisation of industry, Germany able to grow military in USSR
1931, continuation of Berlin treaty but relations becoming strained
political upheaval and rise of Hitler in Germany - Stalin slow to react
thought it would accelerate collapse of capitalism
but from 1933 Stalin showed more interest in collective security and relations with the Western democracies, still kept options open with Germany

Question 30

Soviet entry into the League of Nations

Answer 30

from 1933, improved relations with the USA, American embassy opened in Moscow, no longer have to depend on ‘Riga watchers’
Litvinov , foreign commissar, ‘acceptable face’, finalised relations with US
both were worried about rise of Japan after invasion of Manchuria in 1931
bringing USSR into LoN was a desirable step towards strengthening collective security against threats of Japan or Germany
entry into the LoN seemed like a radical change in policy but international situation was different. By 1934, Germany and Japan withdrew from League and major powers were anxious for USSR to join
joined September 1934
1934 and 1935 Stalin took further steps towards collective security - hard-line policy enforced on Comintern was scrapped, communism was to cooperate with democratic socialists in the fight against fascism

Question 31

Pacts with France and Czechoslovakia

Answer 31

stalin was slow to react to Hitler and willing to continue military negotiations
but he did seek new allies e.g. USA
December 1932, non-aggression pact with Poland made into a 10 year agreement in 1934
non-aggression pact with France in 1932, basis of Franco-Soviet pact of mutual assistance signed in 1935
France were worried about rise of Nazism, but Franco-Soviet pact did not have specific clauses on military cooperation and was vague on when it would be activated
USSR and Czechoslovakia signed a pact saying USSR would take military action if Czech attacked by third party, as long as the French also did.

Question 32

Soviet intervention in the Spanish Civil War

Answer 32

setback in approach of collective security in March 1936 after remilitarisation of the Rhineland, contravening terms of ToV, passive response of France weakened Stalins faith in Franco-Soviet pact as issue was so close to France
July 1936, right-wing army officers led by Franco launched a rebellion in Spain, both Italy and Germany sent military support to Francoists, France wanted to prevent war becoming internationalised
September 1936, Stalin intervened, large scale and rapidly implemented - hundreds of troops, tanks and aircrafts
propaganda went into overdrive
intervention had significant impact but after early months of 1937 Stalin’s policy changed - direct military commitment was scaled back, Stalin wanted to prolong the war to wear down Italy and Germany
became concerned with internal security due to disillusionment with France and Britain

Question 33

Western appeasement and the Munich Conference

Answer 33

1938, threats to security as Hitler had told his generals to prepare for a war of aggression and Japan had launched war of aggression in China but collaboration with West seemed ineffective as policies of France and Britain were dominated by appeasement
In 1938, Germany invaded Austria as a part Anschluss and France and UK took no action
in 1938, Nazi-inspired agitation in German speaking Czechoslovakia which was the threat 1935 pacts with France and Czech intended to guard against
led to Munich conference of 1938 - excluded Czechoslovakia despite it being country who’s fate being decided and USSR was not invited and pact between USSR and Czechoslovakia was not activated as France took no action

Question 34

Soviet response to Japanese aggression

Answer 34

after invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and invasion of China in 1937 = threat
Anti-Comintern pact of Japan, Italy and Germany = direct attack on USSR
USSR stationed substantial military forces on Manchurian frontier - major war from May - September 1938 involving over 100,000 troops
decisive victory at Khalkhin Gol - 75% of Japanese army killed
Japan underestimated Soviet military power and suffered heavy defeat - concentrate on targets in Pacific instead
major shift towards policy in Europe - signing of NS pact

Question 35

origins of the Nazi-Soviet pact

Answer 35

signed by Ribbentrop and Molotov on 32 August 1939 - diplomatic revolution
by end of 1939, clear Europe was sliding towards war and Hitler committed to invasion of Poland and wanted freedom to do this without intervention
Stalin wanted to avoid war on 2 fronts with Germany and Japan and wanted fascists to fight against capitalists to exhaust each others armies and leave USSR neutral
for Hitler, this pact gave him free hand to invade Poland and USSR provided Germany with vital raw materials
Stalin received territorial gains in Eastern Poland and Baltic states and gave him breathing space
but Stalin remained open to alliances with West - March 1939, Britain and France gave guarantees to Poland they would go to war if Germany invaded, would require help of Soviets but Poland were reluctant to let Soviet forces on soil and thus hindered
Anglo-French military mission did not reach Moscow until terms of Nazi-Soviet pact had already been agreed

Question 36

outcomes of the Nazi-Soviet pact, 1939

Answer 36

• protection from war against Germany - military weaknesses highlighted after winter war with Finland
• breathing space to concentrate on internal affairs
• territorial gains
• prospect of long war that would leave western Europe military and economically exhausted
  Stalin’s optimism based on 2 assumptions - strength of French army, collapsed rapidly in June 1940 - putting Hitler in complete control of Western Europe and believed he could trust Hitler - Stalin observed terms of pact and continued supplying Germany with raw materials and food
  unprepared to defend on June 22 when Germany invaded