Stalin, Khrushchev and Brezhnev Flashcards
1
Q
What were the different positions of people under the collective leadership?
A
Malenkov- PM Molotov- Foreign secretary Bulganin- Deputy PM Khrushchev- Party secretary Beria- Head of the NKVP
2
Q
What happened in Leningrad after 1945?
A
- Leningrad was considered a ‘window to the West’ and in 1948, there was a purge of 200 leading Leningrad party officials.
3
Q
How did those in power regard reform and what was their attitude to terror?
A
- Wanted better relationships with the West. Used force against uprisings and censorship to deny it. Allowed more culture e.g. Literature- the thaw
4
Q
What legal reforms did Khrushchev make?
A
- Citizens were given more security by a new cultural code. The length of imprisonment was significantly reduced and the death penalty restricted to treason.
5
Q
What evidence is there to support MEDVEDEVs opinion that Brezhnev was vain and stupid?
A
- Ashamed of humble beginnings and wanted to be taken seriously as an intellectual.
- Exaggerated contributions
- Began to believe his own propaganda
- Denied serious and growing problems in his later years.
6
Q
What was one of the issues associated with the Nomenklatura system which caused problems in BAM?
A
- ‘Expert’ advice was not always very good.
7
Q
What does SERVICE say about the influence of Nazi atrocities on Soviet victory?
A
- ‘If it had not been for Hitler’s fanatical racism, the USSR would not have won’
8
Q
How did relations between the Republics and Moscow develop under Brezhnev?
A
- Those appointed were always subject to supervision from Moscow by the practice of installing ethnic Russians in positions of power.
- Often those stationed in other states went ‘native’.
- All institutions became more Russified and an increasing proportion of the central committee were Russian with the Secretariat almost exclusively so.
9
Q
Give an example of a dissident writer?
A
- Yuri Daniel imprisoned for satirical writings
10
Q
What were Brezhnev’s strengths and weaknesses as a leader?
A
- Reliable
- Decorated more than Stalin
- ‘Dnieper mafia’- nepotism
- Listened to advisors
- Lots of background and experience; son of steelworker, youth wing, Komosol, war, Stalin, virgin lands, Khrushchev
- Shrewd- distance from Khrushchev
- Consensus rather than arguments
11
Q
What was the political experience of 1945?
A
- New world superpower
- Stalin as a strong leader
12
Q
What was the economic situation in 1964?
A
- Economic growth more than halved during Khrushchev’s reign
- Agricultural investment was unsuccessful
- Some attention had been given to consumer goods.
- Still predominantly heavy industry
13
Q
What does SERVICE say about the Brezhnev era?
A
- ‘Nobody denies that by the end of the 1970s chronic absolute decline was in prospect.
14
Q
How did tensions develop in the early years of the Cold war?
A
- USSR occupied centre stage in international diplomacy and communist regimes were in place in many liberated territories backed by Soviet armies.
- Allies had assisted White armies in civil war.
- Dropping of atomic bombs shocked Stalin but America refused to share the knowledge.
- American investment in Western Europe
- Comments made by Truman about Greek civil war.
- Division of Berlin
- US assisted South Korea in fight against communism
15
Q
What were the aims of the economic plans during the war years?
A
- Focus on military production and heavy industry
- Moved factories and workers to other side of Ural mountains to make it more difficult for Germans to attack.
- Food production and rationing
- Organisation of workers and mass production
- Optimising large civilian population
16
Q
Give examples of some countries which displayed dissidence towards the regime?
A
- Georgia
- Armenia
- Lithuania
17
Q
What does NOVE say about decentralisation?
A
- ‘The most intelligent soviet economists consider that this must be an essential feature of any effective reform’
18
Q
Give an example of a Jewish dissident?
A
- Anatoly Sharansky
19
Q
What were the economic plans after 1945?
A
- Between 1945-50, almost 90% of industrial investment went into raw materials
- Railway reconstruction
- Investment in German occupied regions and use of assets
- Lack of concentration on consumer goods
- Very little attention paid to agriculture
- Continued focus on military production
20
Q
What action did Bukovsky take?
A
- Circulated anti-soviet propaganda.
21
Q
Give two different historical interpretations of Stalin’s leadership after 1945?
A
- KENEZ argues that Stalin was able to manipulate and control people and that although he was a figurehead he was still very powerful.
- Another argument is that he was purely a figurehead and it was others who made the decisions.
22
Q
What was the big problem throughout the Communist regime?
A
- The centrally planned economy
23
Q
What was the politburo?
A
- The main decision-making body of party/state
- Stalin sometimes by-passed it
- The British equivalent of a cabinet
24
Q
What were the successes of Russia in the Battle of Kursk?
A
- Anti-turkish artillery guns placed on site where Germans would use tanks
- 300,000 civilians helped in defence
- Germans lost 350 tanks
25
What economic problems did Brezhnev face?
- Low agricultural production
- State farms hadn't improved much on collective farms
- Failure of Virgin Lands
- Grain had to be imported from the west
- Industry wasn't diverse enough
- Lack of consumer goods
- Although living standards rose, the economy began to stagnate.
26
What was the central committee and secretariat?
- An elected body but that wasn't as powerful as the party side of the government.
27
What reason did the Soviet government give for their victory in the Great Patriotic War?
- The Soviet people were strong against German advances due to their devotion to communism
28
What were the social issues that still existed in 1964?
- De-Stalinisation
- Rebellion
- Dissatisfaction
- Housing shortage
29
What was the point of the 1977 constitution?
- Created to demonstrate 'developed socialism'. It was adapted in each Republic.
30
How did Brezhnev's leadership style/skill help establish his power?
- Promoted his family
- Stability + complacency
- Stalinist title of General Secretary
- Never seriously under threat
- No charisma but solid base of support
- No obvious deputy or successor
31
How did Brezhnev achieve his aims?
- Few changes to lower level administration
- Promoted supporters to the Politburo
- Control of the KGB
- Central committee size increased
- More frequent Politburo meetings
- Respected expert advice e.g. industry
- Established 'Nomenklatura' system
- Strict admission
- Style/skills
- Reforms
32
What evidence is there that living and working conditions didn't improve under Brezhnev?
- Complaints about cultural, religious and intellectual freedom and the restrictions and rigidity of the USSR.
- Food shortages
- Disparities between regions. Babies in Turkmenistan were five times more likely to die than in Latvia.
- High divorce rates
- Cramped housing conditions and increasing dissatisfaction of women.
- Alcohol abuse were a factor in around 45% of divorces.
- Increase in single parent families, youth issues and illegitimacy
- Ageing population and a drop in life expectancy
- Pressure on social services
- Issues with healthcare
-
33
According to LAVER how did the public react to Khrushchev's speech?
- A full written production of the speech was not allowed but it was read to several million citizens in workplaces and schools. It was also leaked and published around the world.
- Strong reactions to the speech within the USSR with it pleasing some and angering others.
- Due to closed society it is difficult to gage popular opinion.
- Speech was probably damaging to the party in the long term. The essential features of Stalinism remained although the use of arbitary terror disappeared for those who conformed.
34
What were the political negatives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- Stalin made the mistake of trusting Hitler and refused to prepare even when invasion became apparent.
35
What was the council of ministers?
- The party side of the government who were much more powerful and had far greater influence.
36
What was economic policy like under Brezhnev?
- Economy slowed and stagnated which can be conidered a reason for the USSRs collapse.
- Didn't create the flaws in the command economy.
- Impressive recovery from WW2
- Had outstripped growth rates of the Capitalist west
- Impressive successes in areas like space and defence
- Soviet politicians all wanted to address defects within the confines of the system.
37
How did Conservatism increase opposition under Brezhnev?
- The arts were still heavily monitored and artists and writers sometimes prosecuted.
- Wanting to pursue art for arts sake.
- Rigidity in the system and bureaucracy
- Unsure of limits to political discussion
38
Give some examples which support the idea that the Soviet union won the war through the people's devotion to communism?
- 'Caught in the mighty surge of patriotism'- KRAVCHENKO
- Use of propaganda about German atrocities
- Common struggle and the relaxation of censorship
- People continued to work, longer hours than before and even reconstructing the city.
39
Did Khrushchev introduce new freedoms into the USSR?
| NO:
- Artists were directed on what they were supposed to create
- Dr Zhiago wasn't printed even though it had won a nobel prize
- Culture was only allowed if its served Khrushchev's purpose.
- Regime continued to use oppression with 20,000 political prisoners and the secret police the KGB.
- De-stalinisation but not tolerance.
40
Give an example of a serious act of dissidence? What were its consequences?
- Alexander Dubech's liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia resulted in invasion
41
How did State Planning and Preparation before WW2 lead to Soviet Victory?
- 5 year plans and the collectivisation of agriculture
- Economy devoted to military production
- Soviet system- centralised agencies responsible for output of a single type of weapon, central allocation of labour and resources
- Didn't need to keep the business community content.
42
What were Khrushchev's motives for economic reform?
- Wanted to address inflexibility and lack of initiative that increasingly hindered the planned economy.
- Needed more focus on efficiency and quality.
43
What were people's militias?
- Volunteers formed by the regime to back the overstretched Red Army.
- Although they were often treated with suspicion they were used in a variety of situations including combat.
- However, they suffered many casualties and would probably have been more useful in the workforce.
44
What were the 'helsinki' groups?
- Soviet dissidents and human rights activists who tried to protest against the regime.
- Were largely dealt with by the KGB.
45
What was the economic situation in 1945?
- War economy- heavy industry
| - Military gains
46
How did technology stop the economy from working under Brezhnev?
- Couldn't adapt
- Change took years
- Outdated technology and machinery except in prestigious sectors like defence
- Technological gap between capitalist economies which had decreased in the 60s widened again in the 80s.
47
What role did the church play after 1945?
- During the war, the Orthodox church had been harnessed by Stalin to boost support for the regime.
- After 1945, religious practice was tolerated only so far as it conformed and presented no threat to the 'States control of public opinion'. However, much religious sentiment was channelled into a glorification of the Stalin cult.
48
What was the economic situation in 1982?
- Widening of technological gap
- Economic stagnation
- Ninth five-year plan failed to make targets
49
What is dissent?
- Disagreement with an event, idea or situation
50
How did promoting his supporters to the politburo help establish his leadership?
- By 1981, 8 full Politburo members were his proteges and 4 had been with him since the 1940s.
- Between 1960 and 1980 the average age of Politburo members was nearly 70
- One of Brezhnev's friends were given the resurrected post of minister of internal affairs in order to secure police support.
- Other important appointments included head of KGB and ministry of defence.
51
How did more frequent politburo meetings help Brezhnev establish his leadership and aims?
- Some decisions were made by a small inner group within the Politburo
- Included 2 future leaders
- Had supporters in all bodies
- Emphasis on consensus
52
What evidence is there that Brezhnev loved the trappings of power?
- Country estate outside Moscow
- Enjoyed entertaining colleagues and foreign guests.
- Fleet of cars
- Listened to the US 'Voice of America' radio programme in order to find out what foreign commentators were saying about him and the Kremlin.
53
Give a brief description of Soviet propaganda?
- Supervised by the Directorate of Propaganda and Agitation of the Central Committee under Sheherbakov and administered by the newly established Soviet Information Bureau
- Boost morale
- Appear strong and well equipped even if that wasn't true.
54
What was the Berlin blockade in 1948?
- Formed after the UK, USA and France united their zones to form West Germany.
- Lasted nearly a year
55
What was the economic situation in 1964?
- Economic growth more than halved during Khrushchev's reign
- Agricultural investment was unsuccessful
- Some attention had been given to consumer goods.
- Still predominantly heavy industry
56
What was BAM?
- The Baikal- Amur railway project
57
What economic effects did the relationship between the Republics and Moscow under Brezhnev have?
- Some economic policies damaged Republican economies, most noticeably the regimes attempt to force the central Asian communities to focus their economies on cotton.
- Throughout the Republic there were similar failures
58
What was involved in BAM?
- Between 1974 and 1984, 30 billion roubles was spent on 3000 kilometres of railway.
59
Give a fact which showed Khrushchevs reforms were working
All sectors had shown improvement from 1958 levels by 1965
60
What kinds of dissent are there?
- Grumbling
- Terrorism
- Protest
- Arts and culture
- Organisations
61
What was the economic situation in 1982?
- Widening of technological gap
- Economic stagnation
- Ninth five-year plan failed to make targets
62
How did coercion help gain Soviet victory?
- 'Smersh' units were deployed behind the Soviet lines to ensure Soviet soldiers didn't retreat.
- 'Not one step back' meant anyone who retreated or appeared weak was either shot or put in penal battalions to do terrible and suicidal jobs.
- Blocking battalions would march behind the army and shoot anyone who was slacking
63
What was the Marshall plan of 1947?
- Plan by general Marshall to help Europe recover using American money
64
What were the political experiences of 1982?
- 'Nomenklatura'
- Resumed and Conservative
- Corruption
- Dissidence- 'no public support'- LAVER
- Provided order, tranquility and predictability
- Satellite states
65
Who was in charge of the USSR in the years 1964-68?
- 4 years of collective leadership following Khrushchev
66
What was Beria's position in Soviet Russia?
- Stalin's agent in Caucasus in the 1930s
- Head of NKVD (secret police)
- Soviet secretary 1941-53
- Internal affairs- 1953
67
What does OXLEY say about the importance of patriotism?
- 'The seemingly unlimited capacity of the Russian people to endure the worst possible disaster and still to struggle on'
68
What was article 19 of Brezhnev's constitution?
- The people are the basis of the USSR and have control of it.
69
Give some facts about Khrushchev's removal from power?
- Didn't announce Khrushchev's death
- Disliked within party
- Uneducated
- Erased from history
- Alienated everyone
- Travelled too much
70
What does MCCAULEY say about the influence of Nazi atrocities on Soviet victory?
- 'Many non-Russians had welcomed the Germans'
71
What was article 19 of Brezhnev's constitution?
- The people are the basis of the USSR and have control of it.
72
What was the aim of Germany in the Battle of Kursk?
- Improve morale after the defeat at Stalingrad
| - To damage the relationship between the Russians and the allies
73
What does the Battle of Stalingrad tell us about why the Soviet Union won the war?
- In September 1942, a German commander, General Paulus and his army advanced on the city of Stalingrad.
- His primary task was to ensure oil fields in the Caucasus and then Baku and to do this Hitler ordered him to take Stalingrad.
- Stalingrad was also important as Russia's centre of communication and manufacturing
- Stalingrad was very important for morale which is reflected by Stalin's order of 'not a step backwards'.
74
How was Brezhnev the butt of jokes?
- People liked to contrast his mediocrity with the personality cult created for him.
- Gap between the image of wise leader and the reality of growing complacency.
75
What were the results of agriculture reforms under Khrushchev?
- 5/6 maize wasn't ripe.
- Initially, successful with grain production increasing by at least 50% by 1958.
- Land beyond Urals not as fertile
- After 1958 Virgin Land scheme a failure
- Serious faults in the planning and administration of the scheme including hasty planning, inexperienced management and coordination and lack of attention to living and working conditions of workers.
- Peasant incomes rose at a faster rate than other sectors.
76
Give some information about the First Secretary Brezhnev?
- Khrushchev was his patron
- Proletarian background
- Joined Komosol before becoming a full party member in 1931.
- Involved in purges of Ukraine
- Political commissar during war
- Exploited military links when engineering Khrushchev's removal
- Supporters known as 'Dnierper Mafia'
- Part leader in Moldavia
- Various important positions
77
What was operation Barbarossa?
- Germany's plan to invade Russia
78
What purges occurred in 1948?
The leaders of culture such as poets and directors
79
How did coercion help the Soviet Union to victory?
- Historians are divided on the reasons why the population continued to work and fight.
- Some argue the people only endured such terrible conditions because of police brutality.
- Many worked because there was a genuine popular hostility to invasion and a core enthusiasm. 'Patriotic war' not 'communist war'.
- Re-imposed control when it wasn't necessary to make concessions.
- Labour camps for stealing
- Less political persecution
- Freedom for help in the war
- Propaganda
80
What were the strengths of Malenkov in Soviet Russia?
- High birth status
- Played several key roles
- Had administrative and political skills
- Ruthless
- Good relationship with Beria and Stalin
- Kept a low profile
81
What did Brezhnev do in 1977?
- Made the 1977 constitution which particularly related to social development and culture.
82
Why was terror used by Stalin in the 1930s?
- Terror was used as a way to exert control over people and enforce communism.
- It was also used to get rid of anyone who might try and oppose Stalin or the communist party.
- Many political opponents were put on trial including social revolutionaries and former Mensheviks. The people most at risk were the members of the party themselves and purges of the masses didn't begin until 1937.
- Bolstered Stalin's position and supported propaganda
83
What evidence is there that living and working conditions did improve under Brezhnev?
- Gradual increase in the overall standard of living
- In Khrushchev's time 40% of Soviet citizens lived in shared or communal apartments but by 1985 this proportion had more than halved.
- In 1967, 5 day working week with 15 days of holiday increase from 12
- Real wages increased by 50% and the consumption of meat, fish and vegetables also increased by 50%.
- Satisfaction from material conditions, job security, social security and educational provisions.
84
How did quantity over quality prevent the economy from working under Brezhnev?
- If 3000 tractors were demanded, 3000 had to be given regardless of whether they worked or not.
- Despite huge investment in tractors, the no. of tractors didn't increase
- No quality control
- No competition
- Environmental issues- Chernobyl, shrinking of Aral Sea
- Obsession with growth as an indicator of success
- Neglect of industries in which success couldn't be quantitatively measured e.g. services and transport
- Short-term gains rather than long-term development
85
To what extent was Stalin's leadership responsible for the soviet victory in the great patriotic war?
1) Patriotism
2) Nazi atrocities
3) German tactical errors and racism
4) War production
5) Allied resistance
6) Coercion
7) Weather
8) War hero
86
How did Nazi atrocities help Soviet victory?
- Germans murdered over 1 million civilians, people who were not loyal to Stalin and Russia but were turned against Germany by this.
87
What was the Truman doctrine of 1947?
- Warning issued to the American Congress that America had a responsibility to contain Communism.
88
What was the Cominform which was established in 1947?
- Combined various European communist parties
- Wanted Russian style communism
- Trade between non-communist countries discouraged
- Communist information Burea
89
What political problems faced Brezhnev?
- Lack of iniative
| - Dead weight of bureaucracy
90
Who ran the Soviet government immediately after Stalin's death?
- Collective leadership
91
How did collectivisation stop the economy from working under Brezhnev?
- Areas of Uzbekistan supposedly growing cotton were in fact uncultivated.
- Output of private plots was considerably larger than collective fields
- Farmers had no incentives to work hard
- More investment in agriculture resulted in a decline in industry.
- Collectivisation remained.
92
What were the results of Kosygin's reforms?
- Inevitable clashes and compromises between innovative and conservative managers
- Many managers and administration were unenthusiastic or afraid to innovate.
- Old dilemmas persisted- fears of not meeting targets, quantity over quality and consumer goods not a priority.
- Prices centrally controlled with no consideration for cost, profit, demand or need. Prices of coal were too low, oil and gas profitable, light industry ran at a loss.
- No incentives- 'we pretend to work and they pretend to pay us'.
- Reforms abandoned by 1970
- Younger economists wanted major change.
93
What was the battle of Moscow known as?
- 'Operation Typhoon'
94
How did party control of KGB help Brezhnev establish his leadership?
- Yuro Andropov was made head of KGB in 1967
- Detailed reports of 'nomenklatura'
- Reported increase in corruption
95
What action did the regime take against the dissident Bukovsky?
- Arrested in 1963.
- Confined to psychiatric hospitals
- Expelled from USSR in 1976.
96
How does OXLEY describe Brezhnev's weaknesses as a leader?
- 'The butt of countless jokes'
| - 'Cosy world of comrades'
97
What was the council of ministers made up of?
1) All-union Communist Party Congress
2) Republic communist party conferences
3) City and collective farm communist party conferences
98
Describe the structure of the elected soviets?
- Was a system which reached up from local, district, farm and city soviets.
- Although in theory the soviets elected the Central Committee and therefore the Politburo, in reality the Supreme Soviet meekly approved laws drafted by the party. However, the party chose those who were to be elected.
99
What were the political experiences of 1982?
- 'Nomenklatura'
- Resumed and Conservative
- Corruption
- Dissidence- 'no public support'- LAVER
- Provided order, tranquility and predictability
- Satellite states
100
What changes did Brezhnev make to agriculture?
- Peasants were given passports enabling them to move home and obtain the same security benefits as urban workers which reduced the standard of living gap.
- Farms were set slightly lower targets.
- Fewer restrictions on private plots
- Attempts at integration
- State investment in agriculture tripled.
- USSR became the world's largest wheat producer.
- People earned more
- Food shortages in shops due to increased demand and control by the state.
- prices in the collective farm market doubled.
- Government were reluctant to risk unpopularity by raising prices.
- Increased dependence on foreign imports including wheat.
101
When did Stalin die?
- March 1953
102
What evidence is there that living and working conditions did improve under Brezhnev?
- Gradual increase in the overall standard of living
- In Khrushchev's time 40% of Soviet citizens lived in shared or communal apartments but by 1985 this proportion had more than halved.
- In 1967, 5 day working week with 15 days of holiday increase from 12
- Real wages increased by 50% and the consumption of meat, fish and vegetables also increased by 50%.
- Satisfaction from material conditions, job security, social security and educational provisions.
103
Why did the Soviet Union win the war win the 'Great Patriotic War'?
- Germans were unprepared for the Russian weather and conditions and long supply lines
- Germans were fighting a war on two sides and were having to balance their forces.
- Russians were willing to die rather than surrender to the Germans
- People worked very long hours and put a lot of effort into industry.
- Motivated by the atrocities of the Germans.
- Massive population meant more fighters
- Turning points
- German defeats or stagnation increased morale
- Resourcefulness
104
What are the SOVIET historical interpretations of soviet victory in WW2?
- Element of resentment to the way the West analysed the war on the Eastern front.
- They refute the idea that it was German error which resulted in Soviet victory, suggesting it was the Russian people's determined resistance. In addition they dispute the popular western belief that the communist party didn't have a significant role.
- The claim the West exaggerates the amount of support they gave particularly with regards to military equipment.
105
How were the Helsinki groups dealt with?
- Although these groups worked within the law they were still punished severely.
- Firstly, the KGB gave warnings
- Then they were threatened
- Finally the dissidents were imprisoned.
- Some were even sent to psychiatric hospitals
106
What were the Yalta and Potsdam conferences?
- Final agreements about Germany and reparations
- Decide what to do with Germany
- Germany split into quarters.
107
How much power did Stalin have after 1945?
- Stalin was the hub of the government but appeared to take fewer decisions leaving them to his subordinates.
- At the same time, he would play his colleagues against each other and made them guess what he really wanted.
- Although he gave fewer orders he insisted on being consulted about everything and his leaders were terrified of getting it wrong.
108
Which group of people seized power after Stalin's death and why did they do this?
- Stalin's veteran associates wanted to consolidate their own positions of power
109
What was the political experience of 1945?
- New world superpower
| - Stalin as a strong leader
110
What does SALT stand for?
- Strategic arms limitations talk
111
What is LYNCHS opinion on the virgin lands policy?
- Began with enthusiasm and good intention but the usual flaws in the soviet system meant it was doomed to fail.
112
What position did Malenkov have in Soviet Russia?
- Officer in Red Army
- Prominent party official
- Involved in great terror
- Stalin's inner circle
- Central committee- 1941
- State defence committee
- Deputy PM- 1946
- Head of party and PM
113
How did propaganda and the stalin cult help the Soviet Union achieve victory?
- 'He who does not work, does not eat'
- Popular propaganda highlighted mother Russia and her history
- Reduced persecution of the Orthodox Church
- Grew Stalin's personal cult and any strategic errors were hidden from the population meaning his rule remained unchallenged.
- For many years victory over German fascism was a very important celebration.
114
How was Brezhnev corrupt?
- Promoted his son and family to high positions in the state and party
- His daughter especially become notorious for corruption.
115
What role did Zhdanov play in the Soviet regime after 1945?
- He was a member of both the Secretariat and the Politburo and some that Stalin had marked him as his successor.
- He promoted Stalinist themes by emphasising conformity to the party line, especially to any intellectuals.
116
What social issues still existed by 1982?
- No consideration for environmental issues
- Still a disparity between rural and urban workers
- Dispensable income increasing
117
What was the political experience of 1964?
- Khrushchev caused embarrassment abroad
| - Cold war- tensions with the West
118
What were the importances of the Battle of Kursk?
- The strength of the Germans in this area had been broken and the Russians were able to launch a counter offensive.
- By August 1943, Russia had gained back some of its territory.
119
How did strict admission requirements help establish his power?
- Lack of enthusiasm
| - Membership growth fell from 7% to 2% by 1973
120
What happened in July 1975?
- A conference was held in Helsinki.
- It aimed to discuss co-operation in Europe and focused on human rights issues.
- The final agreement is known as the Helsinki accords and committed all countries to respecting human rights and civil freedoms.
121
What were the positives of Brezhnev's economic plans according to Kochan and Keep?
- More investment in agriculture... Cultivated areas like Kazakhstan and Siberia.
- More focus on the long term
- By 1970 58% greater than 5 years previous and double what it had been under Stalin
- Better quality of life
- Minimum wage and savings banks
- Violence and strikes rare
- Adopted natalist policy
122
What were Brezhnev's weaknesses as a leader?
- Dull
- Self-conscious about his beginnings
- Believed his own propaganda
- Promoted family and friends
- Complacent
- Foreign policy decisions e.g. Czechoslovakia
- Elderly politicians
- Expert advice sometimes wrong e.g. BAM
123
How did Brezhnev's political policies change the Party?
- Moved people who posed a threat to the government side e.g. Alexander Shelepin.
- Nomenklatura system- list of reliable party personell- 3-5 million of pop. 2%
- People didn't apply to positions but were chosen.
- Promotion likely if you didn't 'rock the boat'
- Promotion usually dependent on a sponsor higher up
- Privileges reserved for party members to guarantee loyalty e.g. medical care.
- Party liked Brezhnev's conservatism.
- Ideological appeal of party decreased
- Corruption
124
Explain what happened in the doctors plot of 1953?
- After 1948, there was outbursts of 'Anti-semitism' with many Jews being purged. The purge then spread to the party itself and in 1953, leading Kremlin doctors were accused of poisoning Zhadanov and plotting the deaths of Stalin and his colleagues.
125
What did the Brezhnev doctrine of 1968 give the impression of?
- Enforces the idea that the party is always right and always has the people's best interests.
- Is a warning to anyone who might try and push the limits of the party.
126
To what extent can Stalin be held responsible for the Terror?
- Controversial topic
- Widely accepted that Stalin was the directing force and it is apparent that he signed the death warrants for thousands if not millions of people.
- There are some who argue that no one was in control or driving the purges but that they snowballed due to fear and hysteria. Stalin couldn't run everything and woldn't be aware of everything and local party officials sometimes acted independently of the centre.
127
What social problems did Brezhnev face?
- Housing shortages
| - Living conditions
128
What action did the dissidents Sinyavsky and Daniel take?
- Daniel published anti-soviet writings abroad between 1956 and 1963.
- Sinyavsky was a literary critic and supporter of Pasternak.
- Their treatment unleashed a backlash from other intellectuals
129
What are the WESTERN historical interpretations of soviet victory in WW2?
- Tendency to emphasise Soviet heroism while downplaying other positive factors.
- Sometimes a focus on Stalin's errors especially early in the war, or otherwise on German errors like their lack of preparation.
- German failure sometimes attributed to inability to cope with severe Russian winter while forgetting that this caused difficulties for both sides.
- More balanced interpretations highlight more positive Soviet feature such as Stalin's growing quality as a war leader, skills of Russian Generals, heroics of civilians and the strength of the soviet army.
130
What was the economic situation in 1945?
- War economy- heavy industry
| - Military gains
131
Give some negatives about relations within the USSR?
- 'Stalin's henchmen'
- 'Butcher of the Ukraine'
- 'Western' artists exiled
- Soviet people unaware of Cuban missile crisis
- Jokes about Khrushchev
132
Give details about what happened in Hungary in 1956?
- After 1945 Hungarians were under Russian control
- Wealth was taken and military put in place
- The leader Rakosi was appointed by Stalin and after his death Eastern Europeans hoped they might be free from Soviet rule.
- Rakosi forced to resign after a volatile situation.
- Students and workers issued sixteen points including personal freedom, more food and removal of the russian and secret police.
- Earlier in the year Poland had gained more rights through street protests and rebellions.
- New Liberal leader who wanted to leave the Warsaw pact and hold democratic elections.
- Khrushchev couldn't tolerate this and dealt with the rising resulting in 30,000 dead and 200,000 fleeing.
133
What does LYNCH say about the thaw?
- 'There was simply a change of style not substance after Stalin's death'
134
What was Germany's aim in the battle of Moscow?
- Gain time in order for the rest of the German army to join the attack in Russia and eventually capture Moscow.
- Hitler wanted to destroy the city by aircraft so he wouldn't have to feed its population.
135
What cultural reforms did Khrushchev make?
- Khrushchev's rule is often referred to as a period of de-stalinisation but could be more accurately called the thaw.
- Soviet citizens had access to a wider range of foreign literature and films although they still had to be considered 'safe'.
- Foreign radio stations
- Famous artists
- Intellectuals encouraged to publish franker accounts of Soviet history particularly when they reinforced Khrushchev's campaign against Stalin.
- USSR was opened up to the outside world visitors encouraged to visit. Some Soviet citizens were even allowed to travel abroad.
- Thousands of political prisoners released.
- Evidence of Stalin was removed with names changed and his body moved away from Lenin.
136
Define the Soviet Nationalities policy?
- Followed that set by Khrushchev allowing some political leeway to the Republics by allowing them to be led by members of their own nationalities.
137
What was Bulganin's position in Soviet Russia?
- Fought in the Tsar's army
- Joined Cheka
- Deputy PM- 1938
- Minister of defence
- Stalin's inner circle
- Head of State
138
What did Brezhnev's rule come to be known as?
'The big sleep' or 'Developed socialism'
139
What action did the regime take against the dissidents Sinyavsky and Daniel?
- Trialed, convicted and imprisoned in 1966 for anti-soviet propaganda.
- Took action to send out a message that de-stalinisation had gone enough.
- KGB set up a new section in 1967 committed to the struggle against ideological diversions.
140
Give an example of a dissident scientist?
- Yuri Orlov
141
How did WAR PRODUCTION help soviet victory?
- 5 year plans- in 1943 USSR produced more war materials than Germany.
- Dismantling and removal of factories and evacuation of 10 million people in Western Russia to the Urals from vulnerable districts.
- Working hrs extended to 12 hrs a day
142
Give some negative facts about relations with the West under Khrushchev?
- Nearly caused a nuclear war
- USA spy plane shot down
- Space race- political propaganda
- Bravado and exaggeration
- Responsible for the Berlin wall
- Cuba
143
What consequences followed the invasion of Czechoslovakia?
- Damaged the USSR inside the global communist movement
- Regime enforced more strictly in Czechoslovakia and other states.
- Destroyed hopes for a reconciliation with China
144
What were the social issues in 1945?
- Huge loss of life- 25 million dead
- Huge loss of infrastructure- 25 million homeless
- Population imbalance
145
Give some facts about the economy under Khrushchev?
- Pre-fabricated housing
| - Freedom of movement by peasantry
146
How did De-Stalinisation and the thaw increase opposition?
- More free society with people able to question
- Intellectuals sharing their views more openly and dissident views growing in number from the Khrushchev era.
- State and party was no longer beyond reproach
- Daring individuals discussing the gap between propaganda and reality.
- Could no longer suppress all 'unofficial' opinion but didn't want an open society.
147
What was the central committee and secretariat made up of?
1) Presidium and Supreme Soviet of the USSR
2) Republic Supreme Soviet
3) City and collective farm soviets
148
What is LAVERS interpretation of the limitations of Khrushchev's speech?
- Delegates strongly applauded parts of the speech but were shocked by its content. However, as an analysis of the truth the speech had major limitations.
- Speech mentioned little about the brutal treatment of the peasantry, denied the flaws in the communist regime with reference to 'Lenin's principle' and victimised the party absolving leaders like Khrushchev from blame.
- Furthermore, while the speech broke new ground in explaining the past it offered no solution on how to resolve future issues.
149
Did Khrushchev introduce new freedom into the USSR?
| YES:
- STITES says there were 'momentous changes' which had a 'profound influence'.
- DAVIS says 'The terror of the previous era had been replaced by an obvious sense of freedom'.
- Wider literature range.
- Foreign radio
- Artists like Shostakovich had reputations restored.
- Foreign visitors
- Political prisoners released.
150
What mistake arguably caused Malenkov to lose the potential to become leader?
- Stepped down as Central committee secretary in the party and kept the Chairman of the council of ministers in the government.
151
What action did the dissident Sakharov take?
- Renowned scientist in developing Soviet nuclear weapons but later opposed nuclear testing.
- He supported East-West co-operation and the new human rights movement.
- Had an international profile
- Awarded nobel peace prize in 1975.
152
Give some positives about relations within the USSR?
- Understood and could talk to ordinary people
- Emerged as hero from defending Stalingrad.
- Popular support from release of political prisoners
- Wide spread support
153
How did State Planning and Preparation after 1941 lead to Soviet Victory?
- Under the Soviet economist Voznesensky, a war production plan was drawn up in 1941 and a central board to control the whole economy was established
- Soviet scientists and engineers regimented into a single organisation
- Emphasis placed on mass production of simple but effective weapons.
- Unskilled workforce divided into a series of easily mastered tasks.
- Within a year, larger quantities of aircraft, tanks and guns were being produced.
- Workers given a small plot of land to compliment rations- consistently fed
- Women more involved- 80% of collective farm workers.
154
What were the strengths of Khrushchev as a potential leader?
- Down to earth
- Cunning
- Respectful
- Good with ordinary people
- Success in a variety of key positions
- Low profile
155
What did the central committee and the secretariat and the council of ministers make up?
- the Politburo
156
How successful was BAM? What consequences did it have?
- Creation of ghost towns
- Single set of rails so only one train could run at a time
- 150,000 people died building it
- Infrequently used
- US $14 billion cost
- Huge failure
- Nine industrial centres planned, only one ever created.
- Looked good on paper but was poorly managed and unsuccessful
157
How did few changes made to lower level administration help Brezhnev establish his power?
- Criticised Khrushchev for 'unjustified transferring and replacing of personnel
158
Was there a Nationalities problem within the USSR under Brezhnev? If so how well was it dealt with?
- Growing separation between Russia and the Republics both politically and economically.
- In places this resulted in calls for independence
- Not competently dealt with despite the claims of Brezhnev and the USSR.
- State continued to use repression to crush dissent.
- Differentiated treatment of Nationalities was successful in the short term but ultimately failed to promote 'integration' and aggravated the subsequent political explosion of the late 1980s.
159
How did society really develop under Brezhnev's 'mature socialist society'?
- Critics of the regime regarded the constitution as worthless since the state decided what the interests of society were.
- Despite the promise of religious freedom, the constitution prohibited the hostility and hatred inated with religious beliefs.
- Appeared as a propaganda exercise.
- Urban pop rose from 53 to 64%
160
What are the seven reasons for Khrushchev's removal from power?
- Policies and failed promises
- Personality
- Power
- Military pride
- Attack on Stalin
- De-Stalinisation
- Party rivalry and factions
- Foreign policy failures and 'adventurism'
161
Describe the collective leadership after Stalin?
- Due to the lack of clear succession collective leadership took control of the USSR.
- Malenkov and Beria as PM and deputy PM
- Malenkov was initially in charge of both government and party but Khrushchev was a Central Committee secretary and had no government post.
- Khrushchev and the other leaders moved swiftly against Beria whos radical ideas and power was seen as a huge threat. Once Beria was dead the way was clear for Khrushchev and Malenkov to fight it out.
162
What were the negatives of Brezhnev's economic plan according to Kochan and Keep?
- Agriculture was subsidised- beef sold at 2 roubles but cost over 3 roubles to produce
- Collectivisation remained; food went to work because of inadequate facilities e.g. transport non-viable villages abandoned.
- Many rural communities elderly and women but less than 2% of collective farm chairmen women.
- Wasteful approach to human resources- 'We pretend to work and they pretend to pay us'- no incentives
- Regression of administration and reform with the centralising trend continually reasserting itself.
163
Why was Beria killed?
- Embodied a double threat to everyone and they feared him as well as his radical and unpredictable ideas.
164
What does LAVER say about de-stalinisation?
- 'modifications of Stalinism, not its destruction'
165
What was Khrushchev's position in Soviet Russia?
- Head of Ukraine party
- War roles and advisor
- Head Moscow party
- Secretary of the Central committee
166
When did the battle of Kursk take place?
July 1943
167
Why was there so much more opposition to the regime under Brezhnev?
- There was more opposition because of Khrushchev's speech which had destroyed the invincibility of Stalin and had given the people the ability to question.
168
What are the 5 key reasons why the economy wasn't working under Brezhnev?
1) Nomenklatura
2) Command economy
3) Quantity over quality
4) Technology
5) Collectivisation
169
What does WARD say about BAM?
- Propaganda impact of BAM was the greatest achievement of the Brezhnev era.
170
What evidence is there that living and working conditions didn't improve under Brezhnev?
- Complaints about cultural, religious and intellectual freedom and the restrictions and rigidity of the USSR.
- Food shortages
- Disparities between regions. Babies in Turkmenistan were five times more likely to die than in Latvia.
- High divorce rates
- Cramped housing conditions and increasing dissatisfaction of women.
- Alcohol abuse were a factor in around 45% of divorces.
- Increase in single parent families, youth issues and illegitimacy
- Ageing population and a drop in life expectancy
- Pressure on social services
- Issues with healthcare
-
171
What were Beria's strengths for the leadership of Russia?
- Extensive influence- controlled Moscow Dynamo- famous Russian football team
- Ruthless
- Feared
- Knowledgable
172
What were the economic positives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- The Soviet elite had believed a war with the capitalist powers was inevitable. Therefore Stalin had embarked on rapid industrialisation through the five year plans meaning by 1941 the economy at least equalled the other powers of Europe.
- Stalin had always considered the force of the economy as important as the military and his organisation meant that by 1942 Soviet munitions were outproducing the Germans.
- Stalin also made the most of ally support and under the Lend- Lease Scheme America and Britain supplied vast quantities of supplies.
173
What other reasons was there for increasing dissidence under Brezhnev?
- Tired of continuing failures
- Country becoming more backward and complacent
- Communism still not occurred and 'dictatorship of the proletariat' not achieved.
- International influences
- Less censorship
- Impact of cold war- the threat from abroad
174
Did Kosygin's reforms have success?
TINKERING WITH THE SYSTEM WAS UNSUCCESSFUL
175
Give evidence by OXLEY which suggests that by 1953, the Soviet governments economic policy hadn't led to successful rebuilding and recovery?
- Rations which had been at starvation levels remained so long after the war.
- Farmers without cows were asked to deliver milk and taxes increased.
- Although agriculture was dismal, figures didn't show this because the government counted the 'biological yield' as opposed to the actual harvest.
176
Why did the famine of 1946/7 occur?
- Caused by grain requisitioning
- Ukraine was the worst affected
- Millions dead
177
What were the impacts of war on the USSR?
- 25 million citizens dead
- 25 million homeless
- 70,000 villages and 1,700 towns destroyed
- 1000s of factories and mines demolished
178
What was different in agriculture under Khrushchev?
- Allocated regional economic councils to increase efficiency
- Amalgamation of kolkhozes to soukhoves- state farms more centralised.
- Virgin lands
- Restriction on the size of private plots.
- Fields overploughed
- Decentralisation of bureaucracy to localised planning; 105 regional councils.
179
How did the command economy prevent the economy from working under Brezhnev?
- Decisions were made at the top and transmitted down.
- Out-of- touch
- Inaccurate and incomplete info
- 'We can send a rocket to Venus but our fridges don't work'
- Corruption
- Military investment dominated
- Same flaws as ever
180
What does the historian LARD say about Khrushchev's agricultural reforms?
'More than anything else Khrushchev's rural reforms were doomed to failure because Khrushchev merely tinkered with a system he believed was essentially sound'.
181
How was Soviet Russia portrayed by propaganda during WW2?
- United
- Undefeated
- Strong
- Resistant
- Victorious
182
How does KEEP interpret Khrushchev's speech?
- His speech replaced old untruths with new ones in order to establish his power.
- It was very of him politically but it showed recklessness which would continue throughout his rule. According to him Khrushchev also overestimated the gullibility of the people.
- Hugely significant in later events of the USSR
183
What successes did Russia have in the Battle of Moscow?
- Russia was seriously outnumbered by Germany by 1:2
- Russia met the second attack with strong resistance and managed to launch a counter-attack
- 10,000 civilians were involved in resistance movements
184
What was the Warsaw pact?
- An agreement of 1955 which bound the Satellite states of Eastern Europe to the USSR in military terms.
- Was set up to combat the Western NATO alliance.
- The thaw damaged the relationships with the Satellite states which had previously been strong under Stalin.
185
What action did the regime take against the dissident Sakharov?
- Exiled
| - Allowed to return to Moscow in 1986 and elected to the new congress of people's disputes.
186
How does SERVICE regard Khrushchev's attitude to reform?
- 'Khrushchev blundered on regardless'
187
What does LYNCH say about Russian patriotism in the importance of the Soviet victory?
- Russians were used to harsh existences
188
What were Khrushchev's solutions to agricultural problems?
- The Virgin Lands Scheme began in 1954 and was designed to increase food production by opening up previously neglected areas e.g. Siberia. Initially, thousands of volunteer party and komosol members travelled to these areas to work on large state farms.
- Some quotas reduced.
- Workers on state farms received a fixed wage as well as social benefits.
- Taxes reduced.
- Increase in fertilisers and machinery
189
How did German tactical errors and racism help soviet victory?
- Assumed Russians would be inferior and didn't manage to take Leningrad, Stalingrad or Moscow.
190
What were the military positives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- By August 1942, Stalin had realised that the present command system was ineffective. He appointed Zhukov as his deputy and agreed that he and Stavka would agree strategy. Following this he appointed 2 other generals to Stavka and under this arrangement disagreement was even tolerated.
In September of the same year he allowed the Germans to continue their advance in order to allow the Soviet army to build up and be thoroughly trained for a counter-attack. This change in style was fundamental to the war effort.
191
Describe the struggle between Khrushchev and Malenkov?
- The two had different policies and strengths. Malenkov wanted power to be concentrated in the government while Khrushchev wanted the party to be more dominant in government.
- Both men favoured economic reform but placed emphasis on different things. While Malenkov wanted to concentrate on light industry and consumer goods but Khrushchev believed in a continued focus on heavy industry and defence. Both advocated agricultural reform.
- Khrushchev showed himself better equipped for the fight and more ambitious than Malenkov who assumed that state institutions would prevail. In February 1955, Malenkov acknowledged some mistakes in policy and resigned to be replaced by Bulganin who couldn't compete with Khrushchev.
192
Give additional information about propaganda and popular response to the war?
- Propaganda had always been deployed and this initially worked against the regime.
- Due to the regimes adamancy that it wouldn't permit a foreign power to invade people either refused to believe it or panicked. However, when the truth emerged, people rallied to Stalin and the motherland.
- Large numbers of volunteers signed up for war service before it was compulsory.
- 'Scorched earth' policy called for destruction of anything which could aid the enemy.
- In Leningrad 1 million residents went to work on defenes
- Martial law was still enforced as can be seen in the panic and lootings of Moscow in 1941.
- Relied on traditional methods of control
- Inevitably, there were some leaks which caused scepticism regarding official propaganda but in general public order and morale held firm despite appalling conditions.
- After 1943, Stalin's cult developed further and he was no longer only feared and respected but loved.
193
How did corruption affect economic growth?
- Had always existed
- Business managers frequently altered production figures, lied about numbers of workers and made unofficial deals to require the necessary raw materials- must meet targets.
- Citizens resorted to bribery as a way of life in a society of shortages and bureaucracy.
- Corruption more pronounced at all levels
- People had more money to spend
- Unofficially, corruption was tolerated because it ironed out the flaws of the centrally planned economy.
- Black market helped citizen satisfaction
- Long running cotton scandal
- Local authorities reluctant to act on corruption because criminals had powerful contacts.
- Second economy worth 100 billion roubles annually, 20% GNP and 40% of personal incomes
- 'Private jobs'
- enabled the economy to function
-
194
How did reforms help Brezhnev establish his power?
- No attempt to address falling standards
- Complacency + mismanagement
- Economic stagnation
- Address defects within the system
195
How did the Helsinki accords lead to increased dissidence?
- Dissidents within the USSR argued human rights were not being upheld. These dissidents became known as the Helsinki groups.
196
What was the political experience of 1964?
- Khrushchev caused embarrassment abroad
| - Cold war- tensions with the West
197
Give some background to Brezhnev?
- Born in 1906 to a proletarian background
- Joined Komsomol before becoming a party member.
- Had support of Khrushchev and built up 'Dnieper mafia'
- In charge of the party in Moldovia where he wiped out opposition and collectivised agriculture.
- Caught attention of Stalin and was promoted to the Central Committee, Secretariat and Politburo.
- Distanced himself from Khrushchev
- Seen as moderate and safe.
198
How did allied resistance help Soviet victory?
- The lend-lease played a 'crucial role' in providing resources
199
How did international influences increase opposition under Brezhnev?
- Writers were able to publish their work in the West
200
What were the demographic positives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- Used the entirety of the population to help the war effort with all men 16-55, women in factories and agriculture and 2 million prison camp labourers.
201
What is a dissident?
- One who disagrees, often with the government. In the USSR, it is a term used to describe internal opposition to the Soviet regime during the 1970s and 80s.
202
What were the social issues in 1945?
- Huge loss of life- 25 million dead
- Huge loss of infrastructure- 25 million homeless
- Population imbalance
203
Give evidence by LAVER which suggests that by 1953, the Soviet governments economic policy had led to successful rebuilding and recovery?
- Main reason for Soviet victory was the successes of industrialisation in the 1930s and post war Stalin wanted to rapidly rebuild the economy and create a sound foundation for the USSR's new superpower status.
- Some modifications in management with more economic ministries and less party interference in everyday running.
- Fourth plan had same successes and was relatively successful in producing large amounts of raw material- between 1945-50 90% industrial investment.
- By 1950, industrial production was up 75% from 1940.
- Railways reconstructed
- There was investment in regions which had been occupied by the Germans and the Soviets gained assets from stripping countries e.g. Eastern Europe.
- Successes came from the hard work of ordinary people
- Almost all historians recognise the achievements of the industrial recovery.
204
What significant event occurred in 1949?
- The first Russian atomic bomb was detonated
- Alarmed America
- Caused Truman to build up nuclear weapons
205
What were the political positives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- Despite his surprise at the Nazi invasion he continued to give rallying speeches and showed himself resolute and determined.
- When Germany began the attack on Moscow, Stalin stayed.
- By 1943, when something wasn't going to plan he sought counsel.
- Developed his skills as a diplomat gaining a great deal after the war.
- Decisive role in co-ordinating military and economic strategy avoiding collapse and turing defeat to triumph.
206
When did the Battle of Moscow take place?
- October 1942... January 1943
207
What is DAVIES interpretation on whether the USSR had fully recovered and rebuilt by 1953?
- No fundamental shift took place in the economy until 1953. However, between 1950 and 1952, the production of consumer goods increased as rapidly as that of capital goods. The economic shift also relaxed the movement of labour which had been introduced on the eve and during the war.
208
What evidence is there that Brezhnev had more military medals than Marshall Zhukov?
- Various medals including four Orders of Lenin, a Victory medal, the Lenin Peace Prize and 'Hero of the Soviet Union'
- More medals than Stalin and Khrushchev combined
209
What was the impact of the cold war on Soviet politics?
- WW2 had brought prestige and Soviet expansion in Europe and the wider world.
- Some spread of influence can be attributed to agreements with wartime allies. However, agreements were often grudging resulting in further fears about Soviet expansion.
- Soviets were concerned about the west and the fact that the USA and Britain wouldn't share their knowledge of the atom bomb.
- Soviet interference in Eastern Europe, disagreements over reparations, joint control of Germany and suspicions of American involvement in Europe worsened existing strains between East and West.
- Mistrust and fear on both sides led to the rapid development of the Cold war.
210
How did the 'nomenklatura' system help establish Brezhnev's power??
- Policy of maintaining stability of personnels at most lessons.
- Long + carefully compiled list of personnel- 3-5 million- 2% population
- Promotions came from list- required a sponsor
- Most of the party linked Brezhnev more Conservative reforms.
211
What reforms did Kosygin make under Brezhnev?
- Reversed Khrushchev's reforms
- Kosygin was not a reactionary and produced his own program of reform in 1965.
- Gave enterprise managers more incentives and independence to encourage innovation and responsibility.
- More care with costs and profits rather than targets.
- Asked managers to set sale targets and reduced red tape.
212
What is the opinion of the historian CONQUEST on Stalin's personal responsibility for the terror?
- Stalin was directly responsible for the terror
213
What were the importances of the Battle of Moscow?
- Prevented Germany from moving further into Russia and allowed them to hold the line.
- By January 1942, the threat to Moscow had ended.
- Hitler moved many troops to the East preventing 'Operation Sealion', the plan to invade GB.
214
Give some examples which support the idea that the Soviet union didn't win the war through the people's devotion to communism?
- Communist government relaxed its attitude to the orthodox church
- Some Russians initially welcomed the Germans and only turned against them because of the atrocities committed.
- Evacuation of 10 million people and factories set up.
- Looking after community and standing up for their country- patriotism not communism.
215
How was Nazi Germany portrayed by propaganda during WW2?
- Liars
- Sneaky
- Uncaring
- Caricature
- Greedy
- Capitalist
- Animalistic
216
How did Brezhnev's constitution of 1977 increase dissidence?
- Guaranteed freedom of speech, assembly, press, religion, and conscience but in reality this was not the case.
- Social problems like housing and public services remained.
217
What happened in February 1956?
- Khrushchev's secret speech
218
Give some of the foreign policy things which occurred under Khrushchev?
- Wanted to expand communist influence and show superiority.
- He tried to improve Soviet relationships with Yugoslavia and Albania who were free of direct influence.
- Tried to strengthen influence in third world countries in Africa and Asia.
- De-Stalinisation also upset the Chinese regime.
- Cuban missile crisis brought the world to nuclear war.
219
Talk about Brezhnev's 'ghost' books?
- Lost Land exaggerated his role in the war
| - Lenin prize for his memoirs
220
What does MCCAULEY say about how de-Stalinisation resulted in Khrushchev's removal from power?
-'His denunciation of Stalin weakened his position at home and abroad and destroyed forever the infallibility of Soviet leadership of the communist movement'
221
What social issues still existed by 1982?
- No consideration for environmental issues
- Still a disparity between rural and urban workers
- Dispensable income increasing
222
What is MEDVEDEV the Soviet historian's opinion of Brezhnev?
- A virtual puppet, vain and stupid
223
Give some information about the space programme under Khrushchev and Brezhnev?
- Appeared to have more advanced technology than the West, although there were several fatal disasters in the programme not reported at the time.
- These projects were used to trumpet the successes and superiority of socialism, but Khrushchev was also a realist and wanted to improve the lives of ordinary people.
- Soviet propaganda emphasised scientific and technical projects such as the space programme.
224
How did Brezhnev's political policies change government structures?
- Changes to administration
- Promoted his supporters to the Politburo and the average age of Central Committee members and the Council of ministers were over 60.
- Central committee increased in size with nearly 500 members by 1981. However, they met only 12 times inbetween 1970 and 85 showing that they didn't have much influence.
- Politburo met more frequently.
- Supporters in both the Central Committee and Secretariat
- 'Stability of cadres'- limited change
225
What did Brezhnev do in 1977?
- Made the 1977 constitution which particularly related to social development and culture.
226
What were the limits to Khrushchev's de-stalinisation?
- Solzhenitign's novel served Khrushchev while other literature remained banned.
- Writers who were too outspoken were harassed and imprisoned.
- The party were stronger against what it saw as the import into the USSR of degenerate Western behaviour particularly a youth culture enthusiasm for fashions like jeans and pop music.
- Criticism of worthless artistic experimentation like abstract art.
227
How did increasing the size of the central committee help Brezhnev establish his leadership?
- 470 members by 1981
| - Only met 12 times in 15yrs
228
Give some positive facts about relations with the West under Khrushchev?
- 'Peaceful co-existence'
- Travelled abroad
- 1st leader to travel to USA on official business- 'public relation triumph'
229
How did society really develop under Brezhnev's 'mature socialist society'?
- Critics of the regime regarded the constitution as worthless since the state decided what the interests of society were.
- Despite the promise of religious freedom, the constitution prohibited the hostility and hatred inated with religious beliefs.
- Appeared as a propaganda exercise.
- Urban pop rose from 53 to 64%
230
How did listening to respected expert advice e.g. industry?
- Less inclined to overrule than predecessors
| - Not always wise because projects were agreed that were costly and counter-productive notably the BAM railway project.
231
What were the military negatives of Stalin's leadership which led to victory in the great patriotic war?
- Although Russia was prepared economically, their military was not. This was partly due to the purges which had undermined morale and stopped initiative. The Soviet forces were unprepared for modern warfare with a lack of co-ordination and transport links.
- Before the impending invasion Stalin refused to mobilise forces meaning they were quickly overrun. Within a week, the Soviet air force was almost completely wiped out.
- Stalin based his ideas from his experiences in the Russian Civil War believing in fierce discipline, tight political control and a constant offensive strategy which proved to be ineffective.
- For some time he continued his attacking strategy even when it was clear it wasn't working.
- Continuous defeats demoralised troops
- Rushed and improvised campaigns resulted in heavy loss of life.
232
What were the social issues that still existed in 1964?
- De-Stalinisation
- Rebellion
- Dissatisfaction
- Housing shortage
233
What were Bulganin's strengths as a potential leader?
- Prominent in the party
| - Variety of experience
234
Give some information about the PM Kosygin?
- Former Leningrad textile worker
- Promoted to chairman of Leningrad soviet during the terror
- Replaced Khrushchev as Chairman of the Council of Ministers
- Reformist approach to the economy
- Good terms with rival Brezhnev but got pushed out of limelight.
- Lacked drive in political fighting.
235
How did terror develop during the 1930s and 40s?
1930- Significant increase in individuals being sent to labour camps and exile. Mass repression began to be used against the kulaks, a term which came to mean any peasant who opposed collectivisation.
1937- Peak number of executions- 'great terror'. Continued into WW2 with purging of both individuals and masses. 95% victims were men and many were national minorities.
236
What does LYNCH say about how Khrushchev's foreign policy resulted in his removal from power?
- 'In Stalin's time his subordinates were too frightened to oppose him. This had never been so Khrushchev'
237
What industrial reforms did Khrushchev make?
- Reorganisation of industry structure and management
- Initially, tried decentralisation with existing economic ministries abolished and replaced by regional ministries. However, the party ensured the influence and the principle of central planning remained.
- The five year plan of 1956 was abandoned in 1959 in favour of a seven year plan designed to take advantage of newly discovered mineral resources and put in with the reorganisation of industry.
- 40% of investment went to the neglected eastern regions
- Although there were gains not all targets were met. The seven year plan had the same faults as the five year ones with resources diverted to the wrong place, a lack of initiative and general confusion.
- More attention given to consumers.
- Khrushchevs administrative reforms didn't really help the economy and each region jealously guarded its own resources.
- New investment priorities meant shortages in other areas e.g. steel
- Housing programme cut back with huge military spending and investment in space.
- Economic growth in 1963/64 was at its lowest peacetime level since 1933.
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What were the agricultural problems under Khrushchev?
- In the 1930s collectivisation was imposed on the peasants causing a variety of problems.
- Peasants had no incentive to work hard because large amounts were taken in terms of %.
- Very inefficient with regular famines and millions of deaths.
- Food shortages and marginal land
- Few animals
- High taxes and low incomes
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Give evidence by OXLEY which suggests that by 1953, the Soviet governments economic policy had led to successful rebuilding and recovery?
- The urban workforce increased by 10 million in the immediate pst-war period.
- Second only to the USA in industrial capacity
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What was involved in SALT?
- Despite the ongoing cold war, the USSR met frequently with other superpowers during the 60s and 70s.
- SALT focused on reducing and controlling nuclear weapons.
- It was designed to create a period of detente.
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How did the nomenklatura system prevent the economy from working under Brezhnev?
- Decreased efficiency because people were chosen for their loyalty rather than knowledge or skill.
- Poor communications between government departments who jealously tried to protect their own interests.
- Political and debate stagnation
- Development of elitist group
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How did treatment of dissent change in the 1970s?
- Sakharov, Ginsberg and a dissident scientist Yuri Orlov were among those harassed by the KGB.
- KGB treatment became more severe after 1977.
- By 1978, over 20 members of the Helsinki groups were imprisoned.
- By the early 80s, the regime seemed to have succeeded in crushing dissidence.
- Historians have suggested the biggest problem was the large number of 'inactive' dissidents.
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What was the issue with de-Stalinisation and the Satellite States?
- The only thing that kept the Satellite states in check was the fear of USSR military power.
- East Germany began to rebel in 1953 because of the huge reparations they were paying.
- In Poland the thaw and release of political prisoners caused riots to break out in 1956.
- Similarly, people in Hungary began to demand more reform.
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Why was BAM created?
- To exploit the vast reserves of gas, coal and oil in Siberia. A 3500 mile pipeline was built to Siberia in order to carry gas to the West.
- Supplement the Trans-Siberian railway and provide a second rail connection to negotiate 7 mountain ranges, 11 alpine rivers and areas of high seismic activity which could also drop to -60 degrees.
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What was the point of the 1977 constitution?
- Created to demonstrate 'developed socialism'. It was adapted in each Republic.
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What religious concessions were made in WW2?
- Successful propaganda method was the restoration of the Roman Orthodox Church.
- Stalin met with its head in return for the church's blessing regarding the war.
- The church was supportive of the war even before the reconciliation and even formed a tank brigade.
- The number of bishops were increased, but the church was not allowed a social role in communities.
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What was different in industry under Khrushchev?
- Rise in consumer goods especially TVs and fridges.
- Realistic targets
- Less reliance on heavy industry with greater prominence to light engineering and chemicals.
- Incentives rather than coercion
- Attempts to increase living conditions e.g. houses
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Give evidence by LAVER which suggests that by 1953, the Soviet governments economic policy hadn't led to successful rebuilding and recovery?
- The fourth year plan had the same defects as others and the system remained inflexible.
- No consideration given to consumers and food and household goods were in short supply.
- Soviet industry was inefficient and labour intensive
- Lost economic support from the allies
- Poor working conditions with little prospects.
- Slogans encouraging endless sacrifice for the future were wearing thin after so many years.
- Mistakes by the state such as the 1947 currency reform drastically reduced the amount of money in circulation making everyday products even more scarce and forcing people to resort to the black market.
- Stalin remained convinced that his early economic strategies were still the way forward
- Economic policy drifted in Stalin's last years
- Agriculture neglected and had barely improved from pre-war levels with farmers earning 1/2 of what they did in the 1920s
- After 1945, the State requisitioned up to 70% of harvested grain.
- Famine
- Agriculture was a 'fundamental weakness'
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What does KENEZ say about Khrushchev's impact?
- There was nothing Khrushchev could have done because the problems he were trying to address were inherent in the Soviet Communist system.
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When did Khrushchev make his secret speech?
- 1956
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What does McCauley say about the Brezhnev era and industry?
- 'If industrial output it the criterion of success, it has not been encouraging'.
