SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY

Question 1

. Define personality:

Answer 1

. The patterns of thoughts and feeling and the ways in which we interact with our environment and other people that make us a unique person.

Question 2

. What are trait theories of personality?

. Include: characteristics and their examples

Answer 2

. Personality traits are innate characteristics and thought to be relatively stable

. They’re highly consistent attributes that exert widely generalised caudal effect on behaviour

. Example: outgoing, aggressive, tense, shy, relaxed, sensitive, etc

. Trait theories don’t believe that situation or environment has effect on person’s behaviour

. Behaviour is said to be consistent

. Trait theory attempts to predict behaviour

Question 3

. Describe the narrow band approach and the two types of personality characteristics in it:

Answer 3

. Approach recognises 2 distinct personality types, highlighting own characteristics.

. A coach may be able to be more aware of performer’s anxiety and suggest intervention strategies.

.Type A characteristics:

> Highly competitive

> Strong desire to succeed

> Works fast

> Likes to be In control

> Prone to suffer stress

. Type B characteristics:

> Non-competitive

> Unambitious

> Works more slowly

> Doesn’t enjoy being in control

> Less prone to stress

Question 4

Describe the stable and unstable personality traits, extroversion and introversion:

Answer 4

. Stable personality trait: doesn’t swing from one emotion to the other but is usually constant in emotional behaviour

. Unstable (neurotic) personality trait: highly anxious and has unpredictable emotions

. Extroversion: seeks social situations, likes excitement and lacks concentration

. Introversion: doesn’t seek social situations, likes peace and quiet and is good at concentration

Question 5

. Describe social learning with personality:

Answer 5

. Suggests we learn characterises rather than being born with them, especially those we hold in highly like parents, coaches, role models, friends and other people of significance

. Behaviour changes depending on situation and is a product of our interaction with the environment

. Personality is learned through experience, modelling and imitating behaviour, and through experience

. Psychological functioning occurs as a result of environmental determinants affecting behaviour

Question 6

. Describe the interactionist approach: (3 points)

Answer 6

. Approach recognised that trait theory and SLT have role in determining behaviour and personality

. Offers more realistic explanation of personality, explaining how different behaviours are produced for different situations

. Suggests we base behaviours on inherent traits that we then adapt to situation we’re in

Question 7

. Define attitudes:

Answer 7

. A predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a person’s environment

. Can be established firmly, but is also unstable and can be changed and controlled

. Attitudes are directed towards attitude objects = places, situations and behaviour of other people

Question 8

State the factors affecting the formation of attitudes:

include : how positive and negative attitudes are formed

Answer 8

. Positive attitudes are formed by:

> belief in benefit of exercise

> Enjoyable experiences in sport

> Being good at particular sport

> Being excited by challenges of sport

> Using sport as stress release

> Influence of others where participation is the norm

Negative attitudes are formed by:

> Not believing in benefits of exercise

> Bad past experience e.g injury

> Lack of ability

> Fear of taking part in sport

> Suffering stress when taking part

> Influence of others where non-participation is the norm

Question 9

. What are the components of attitudes:

. Include: triadic model with definition

Answer 9

. Attitudes have 3 elements according to triadic model:

> Cognitive component: what we know and believe about the attitude object (beliefs)

> Affective component: how we feel about the attitude object (emotional)

> Behavioural component: how we behave towards, respond or intent to respond to attitude object (behaviour)

Question 10

.What are the 2 methods to changing attitudes?

Answer 10

1. Persuasive communication
2. Cognitive dissonance

Question 11

. Define persuasive communication

. Include: what the effectiveness of it depends on

Answer 11

. An active non- coercive attempt to reinforce, modify or change attitude of others

. Effectiveness of persuasion depends on :

> The persuader: person attempting the change (coach, team manager, teacher, captain)

> The message: quality of the message the persuader is giving

> The receiver: person whose attitude the persuader’s trying to change

Question 12

. Define cognitive dissonance

. Include: description and example

Answer 12

. According to this theory individuals like to be consistent in triadic model (do, feel and believe)

. This theory results in individuals having contradictory thoughts about something or someone which creates and attitude.

. Example: rugby player might believe aerobics is too ‘girly’ so coach tells him that some of the fittest people do it to improve stamina. This attack on player’s beliefs causes change in attitude and the player now does aerobics to keep fit

Question 13

. Define motivation:

. Include: definition and it’s 3 considerations

Answer 13

. The psychological drive to sucees

. The internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and directs outperform behaviour

3 key considerations of motivation:

> Our inner drive towards achieving a goal

> External pressures and rewards we perceive

> The intensity (arousal level) and direction of our behaviour

Question 14

. Define the 2 types of motivation:

Answer 14

1. Intrinsic motivation: drive from within, e.g wanting to achieve mastery for its own sake. Includes feelings of fun, enjoyment and satisfaction
2. Extrinsic motivatio: comes from outside source, e.g a trophy or rewards- valuable motivator for beginner, but eventually undermines intrinsic motivation

Question 15

. Define arousal

Answer 15

. The ‘energised state’ or the ‘readiness for action’ that motivates us to behave in a particular way

. Related to intensity and direction of behaviour

. Can be somatic or cognitive and can be a positive and negative influencer on performance

Question 16

. Define the 2 types of arousal:

Answer 16

1. somatic arousal: relates to the changing physiological state of the body, e.g increased heart rate
2. Cognitive arousal: relates to the changing psychological state of the body, e.g increase in anxiety

Question 17

. State a description of arousal and it’s theories:

Answer 17

. As performer’s arousal increases, state of readiness and expectation increases

. If arousal gets too high performer can lose concentration and feel over aroused

. 3 theories of arousal:

> Drive theory

> Inverted U theory

> Catastrophe theory

Question 18

Define drive theory:

Answer 18

. Demonstrate linear relationship between performance and arousal.

. This means that at low levels of arousal, performance is low

. Performance increases in line with increase in arousal

Question 19

. What are the key points of drive theory?

Answer 19

. Quality of performance depends on how well the skills has been learned

. Motor programmes that have already been learned are said to be dominant response

. A dominant response or behaviour is most likely to emerge when performer experiences ncrease in arousal

. Hull predicted that as arousal increases in competitive situation or when learner feels pressure of assessment, there’s s greater chance of dominant response occurring

. Behaviour= habit x drive (arousal)

Question 20

practically apply the drive theory:

Answer 20

. High arousal is beneficial to expert performers (autonomous leaning stage) because their dominant behaviour would tend to produce a response which is fluent and technically correct

. Opposite would be true for novice learner

. High arousal also helps performances of gross and simple skills

Question 21

. What is the Inverted U theory?

Answer 21

. This theory states that arousal improves performance up to an optimal point. Past this point, performance starts to decrease

. Conditions are both under and over arousal severely limit capacity to learn skills and perform them up to potential

Question 22

. What are the key points of the inverted U theory?

Answer 22

. Important to consider:

> Personality: extroverts learn best under conditions of high arousal, introverts under conditions of low arousal

> Type of task: gross/simple/ballistic/closed- high arousal; fine/complex/open- low arousal

> Stage of learning: cognitive/associative- low arousal; autonomous- high arousal

> Level of experience: experienced- high arousal; novice- low arousal

Question 23

. What are the characteristics of under arousal?

Answer 23

. Difficult to direct and focus attention and concentration onto relevant environmental cues

. Concentration is lost because attentionsl field is too wide

. Many unwanted cues in environment- learner may daydream

. Selective attention can’t operate

. Info overload prevents decision making

Question 24

What are the characteristics of optimal arousal?

Answer 24

. Perfect state

. Attentional field is ideal width

. Performer is able to learn or concentrate fully

. Increased capacity to concentrate means most important cues can be absorbed from environment- accurate decision making

. Cue utilisation theory predicts that detection of most important info occurs at optimal point of arousal

Question 25

. What are the characteristics of over arousal?

Answer 25

. Causes attentional field to narrow

. Relevant environmental cues are lost

. Performer is often in a state of panic

. AKA hyper vigilance

. Selective attention can’t operate

. Concentration is seriously impeded

Question 26

. Describe the catastrophe theory:

Answer 26

. Like inverted U theory , catastrophe theory claims that as somatic arousal (physiological anxiety) increases, the quality of performance improves

. However, a 3rd dimension is added to this prediction by stating that performance will reach max potential at optimum level only if cognitive arousal (psychological anxiety) is kept low

. If high cognitive anxiety coincides with high somatic anxiety, the athlete will go beyond the optimal level of arousal- “gone over the edge” and under these conditions performance drops

Question 27

. What are the key points of the catastrophe theory?

Answer 27

. The drop isn’t a smooth curve like the Inverted U theory but plummets vertically

. The vertical descent shows performance disaster or catastrophe

. After a catastrophe, performer can rejoin upward curve of arousal and once again attain the optimum threshold

. This return requires athlete to reduce cognitive anxiety

. When somatic arousal is low, skill learning and performance can be enhanced if cognitive arousal is increased

. Serious debilitation in learning performance will arise when low levels of physiological and psychological arousal converge

Question 28

. Define anxiety

Answer 28

. Anxiety is the negative aspect of experiencing stress and can be caused by worry, apprehension or fear of failure.

Question 29

. Define the types of anxiety:

. Include: test

Answer 29

. Trait anxiety: a trait that is enduring in an individual. A performer with high trait anxiety has the predisposition or the potential to react to situations with apprehension- relates to personality

. Example: during stressful situations- exams or interviews

. Competitive trait anxiety: a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to these situations with feelings of apprehension or tensions - during or about a competition

. State anxiety: the athlete’s emotional state at any given time; variable from situation to situation - The sport competition anxiety test (SCAT) is used to help predict how anxious a performer will be in future competitions

Question 30

. What are the 2 types of anxiety?

Answer 30

. Both can be experienced at different levels before, during and after sports performance

. The control of both types of anxiety is very important to ensure optimal performance

. SOMATIC ANXIETY: Anxiety experienced physiologically

. Symptoms: Increaes BP, sweating, adrenaline boost, need to urinate, muscle tension, pacing, yawning, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, loss of appetite

. COGNITIVE ANXIETY: Anxiety experienced by the mind

. Symptoms: Indecision, confusion, negative thoughts, poor concentration, irritability, loss of confidence, images of failure

Question 31

. What is the zone of optimal functioning?

Answer 31

. Thought as an important state of well-being

. This zone is an emotional response that facilitates top performance and is often referred to as the peak flow experience

. Top performers ‘in the zone’ are:

> relaxed

> confident

> completely focused- concentrating on relevant cues

> effortless in activity

> automatic in movement

> having fun

> in control

Question 32

. Define aggression

. Include : comparison to assertion

Answer 32

. Aggression is the intent to harm or injure outside the rules of the game

. Assertion is forceful behaviour within laws of an event

Question 33

. Define social facilitation:

Answer 33

. The positive influence on sport performance of others who may be watching or competing.

Question 34

. Define social inhibition:

Answer 34

. The negative influence on sports performance of others who may be watching or competing

Question 35

. What are the factors Zajonc identified as affecting performance?

Answer 35

1. The presence of an audience increases arousal
2. Increases in arousal will trigger the dominant response
3. If a skill is well-learned, response will be correct
4. If the skill is new or poorly learned, the response will be incorrrect

Question 36

. Describe evaluation apprehension:

. Include: desciotion and example

Answer 36

. Increases arousal levels which can increase heart rate and cause other detrimental effects

. Example: a person who is trying out for cheerleading may be feel a heightened sense of arousal leading to incompetence not just because others are around, but because of the fear that others are observing and ridiculing them

Question 37

. What are the effects of social inhibition on performances?

. Include: the 5 factors with explanation

Answer 37

. Presence of audience will spur some athletes onto great performances, others may ‘choke’, adversely affecting their performance

. Effects:

> Home v Away:

. Teams more often win at home, maybe due to nature of audience, but some research suggests that it’s harder to win at home due to increased pressure

> Personality factors- introverts v extroverts:

. Type A performs worse in front of an audience than Type B

. Extroverts tend to perform better than introverts in front of a crowd

> levels of experience (beginner vs expert):

. Previous experiences in front of an audience can help to alleviate nerves and improve performance, but if the performer has failed previously they may expect to fail again

. Elite perform better than beginners due to dominant response being correct

. Performing in front of peers can aid experts but increase anxiety if novices

> Type of skills/activities:

. Gross skills -helped by high arousal therefore audience can facilitate performance

. Fine or complex skills are more desirable at lower levels of arousal- audience can inhibit performance

> Other influences:

. Nature of crowd- if hostile or noisy performer may feel more anxious

. Proximity if audience, e.g. a close audience can make performers feel threatened and increase arousal

Question 38

. Describe the strategies to minimise social inhibition:

*HINT* There’s 5 of them

Answer 38

. Imagery techniques to ‘shut out’ the audience

. Relaxation techniques

. Training with audience present

. Preparing to deal with negative reactions of co-actors

. Decreasing importance of event

. Remaining calm and focused

Question 39

Define group:

Answer 39

. A collection of people who both share similar goals and interact with one another.

Question 40

. State the group development names Tuckman identified (in order):

Answer 40

. Forming

. Storming

. Norming

. Performing

Question 41

. Describe the forming stage:

Answer 41

. High dependence on leader for guidance

. Group members are getting to know each other

. Very little agreement on aims of team

. Individual roles are unclear

. Team leader needs to give strong direction

Question 42

. Describe the storming stage:

Answer 42

. Group decisions are difficult

. Team members are establishing themselves in the group

. Focus is clearer

. Cliques form- may be power struggles

. Need for environmental compromise

. Leader has a more advisory role

Question 43

. Describe the norming stage:

Answer 43

. Much more agreement and consensus of opinion

. Roles and responsibilities accepted

. Decisions made through group agreement

. Strong sense of commitment and unity

. Team members are social and friendly with eachother

. Respect for leader and leadership is shared

Question 44

. Describe the performing stage:

Answer 44

. More strategies, clear vision and aim

. No interference of participation from leader

. Focus is on achieving goals

. Team is trusted to get on with job in hand

. Disagreements occur but resolved within team

. Team’s able to work and be personable

. Team doesn’t need to be assisted or instructed

. Team members may ask for assistance from leader for personal and interpersonal issues

Question 45

. What is team cohesion

. Include: description and what Festinger states

Answer 45

. Used when describing group dynamics

. Festinger states that cohesiveness is ‘the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group’

Question 46

. According to Carron, what are the 2 dimensions of cohesion?

Answer 46

. Group integration- how individual members of the group feel about the group as a whole

. Individual attraction to the group- how attracted the individuals are to the group

Question 47

. What does steiner’s model state?

. Include: little description and when it’s helpful

Answer 47

. Helpful when looking at relationship between individuals and group performance

. Actual productivity= potential productivity- losses due to faulty process

Question 48

. What does potential productivity refer to?

. Include: description and example- Chelsea

Answer 48

. Refers to best possible performance of group, taking into account resources available and ability of player.

. Example: a non league team losing 4-0 to Chelsea might well be reaching their full potential but aren’t winning due to their limited resources

Question 49

. What are the 2 factors that cause losses due to faulty processes?

Answer 49

1. Coordination problems: if coordination and timing of team members don’t match, team strategies that depend on them will suffer, e.g. positional error or an ill time do move
2. Motivational problems: if individual team members of team aren’t motivated to same extent players will be withdrawing effort

Question 50

. Describe the ringelmann effect:

. Include: description, research on coordination and motivational losses

Answer 50

. Occurs when individual performances decrease when group size increases

. Research on coordination and motivational losses based on studies into rugby of war, found that team of eight didn’t pull eight times as hard compared to solo performers

.

Question 51

. What did latane find and define motivational losses as

Answer 51

. Found that group performance suffered as a group got larger.

. Called motivational losses- social loafing

Question 52

. Define social loafing:

Answer 52

. Some individuals in a group seem to lose motivation.

. It’s apparently caused by individual losing identity when placed in a group

. Individual efforts may not be recognised by those spectating or by those taking part

Question 53

. What are the strategies to minimise social loafing?

Answer 53

. Highlight individual performance

. Support from others in the team- social support

. Feedback

. Peer pressure to reinforce individual effort

Question 54

. What is goal setting?

Answer 54

. Can develop positive self-perception and reduce anxiety that may arise prior to or during performance

. Correct use of goal setting can help improve confidence and motivational levels of athlete

.

Question 55

. How can goal setting influence performance?

*HINT* There are 6 points

Answer 55

. Directs attention of performer onto required task or strategy

. Increases effort applied by performer

. Improves persistence when task becomes difficult or when failure is experienced

. Performer becomes increasingly motivated to learn and apply different approaches to learning to complete task successfully

. Successful completion of goal will help raise confidence and self-efficacy

. Goals can help break down performance into manageable tasks, helping to control arousal and anxiety

Question 56

. State and describe the SMART goal settings:

Answer 56

. Specific- goals must be clear and specific

. Measurable- goals must be assessed

. Achievable- goals that are shared by performers and coaches are more likely to be achievable, as all parties have common purpose and goal set is realistic to ability of performer

. Recorded- goals should be recorded so progress can be monitored

. Time-phased- goals should be split into short-term goals leading on to long-term goals

Question 57

. What are the different types of goals one can strive for?

*HINT* There are 3 types

Answer 57

. Performance goals- e.g. to achieve a certain time, Such as 100m under 10 seconds

. Process-orientated goals- e.g. to ensure front crawl arm technique is correct

. Outcome goals- e.g. to win the race

Question 58

. What is attribution in sport?

Answer 58

. Attribution is the perceived cause of a particular outcome

. Comprises the reasons, justifications and excuses we give fro winning, losing and drawing in sport

. Attribution theory is linked to motivation, as our attributions will directly affect future efforts and performances

Question 59

. Describe the process of attribution:

Answer 59

. Outcome of event → Available info→ Causal attributions

Expectancy \> Affective response

(Of future results) (Feelings: pride; shame]

. Depends on subsequent participation

(Motivated behaviour or action)

Question 60

. Define attribution retraining

Answer 60

. Often attributions are inappropriate or unreal; it’s important to change these to have a positive effect on future performance

Question 61

. Describe Weiner’s model of attribution:

. Include: only the contents of the model

Answer 61

Question 62

. Describe Weiner’s model of attribution

. Include: detail of model

Answer 62

. Model Isn’t sport-specific

. Locks of causality refers to whether attributions come from within the person (internal) or environment (external)

. Stability refers to whether the attribution is changeable or unchangeable

. If reasons for winning are stable, individual is motivated to achieve again

. If failure is attributed to unstable factor, individual is more likely to try again because there’s a good chance the outcome will change

Question 63

. Define self-serving bias:

Answer 63

. Sports performers who lose tend to attribute their failure to external causes, while those who succeed attribut their success to interns, causes

Question 64

Define controllability:

Answer 64

. Whether attributions are under the control of the performer or under the control of others , or whether they are uncontrollable, i.e. nothing can be done by anyone (e.g.luck, weather).

Question 65

. Describe the 3rd dimension to Weiner’s attribution model:

Answer 65

. Ability: internal, stable, uncontrollable (at top of model)

. Attributed causes according to internal-external (locus of causality), stability and controllability continuum (middle of model)

. Luck: external, unstable, uncontrollable (left of attributed causes)

. Effort: internal, unstable, controllable (right of attributed causes)

. Task difficulty: external, stable , controllable/uncontrollable (bottom of attributed causes)

Question 66

. What is learned helplessness?

Answer 66

. The belief that failure is inevitable and that the individual has no control over the factors that cabuse failures

. Low achievers often attribute their failures to uncontrollable factors which can lead to this

Question 67

. What is mastery orientation?

Answer 67

. Mastery orientation is the view that an individual will be motivated by becoming an expert (master) in skill development

. An athlete who is mastery orientated will often attribute failure to internal, controllable and unstable factors

Question 68

. What is attribution retraining?

. Include: description and example

Answer 68

. Attributions should be encouraged to be controllable, unstable factors

. Example: hockey team that has just lost narrowly should be encouraged to ‘try harder next week.’ This isn’t more likely to result in mastery orientation.

Question 69

Define sports confidence:

Answer 69

. The belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful i sport

Question 70

. What do levels of sports confidence have an effect on?

Answer 70

. Performance- you’ll be more motivated to achieve and will take firm decisions that are more likely to have positive outcomes

. Participation- low levels of sport confidence may mean you shy away from activities with; high levels enable people to participate and not feel inhibited

. Self- esteem- high levels of sport confidence will mean high self-esteem; those with low levels of sport confidence may experience low self-esteem and feel they’re not good enough

Question 71

. Describe Vealey’s sport confidence model:

Answer 71

Question 72

. Explain the key points if Vealey’s sport confidence model:

*HINT* There’s 6 of them including sporting examples

Answer 72

. Sporting context- sporting situation you’re in

. Example: penalty kick in football

. SC-trait- everyone has an existing level of sport confidence

. Example: high levels of confidence in football (high levels of SC- trait)

. Competitive orientation- everyone has an existing level of competitiveness

. Example: enjoying highly competitive situations

. SC- state- the confidence that can be shown in a specific situation in sport

> SC- state = (SC- trait) x (competitive orientation)

. Example: experienced penalty taker has been successful in same situation many times = high levels of SC- state so likely to be successful. If SC-state was low, an inexperienced nervous penalty taker would be unlikely to be successful

. Behavioural response- response to situation

. Example: penalty is scored or not scored

. Subjective outcome- the emotion felt towards behavioural response and these perceived feelings affect future SC-trait and competitive orientation: positive perceived feelings may increase confidence and negative perceived feelings may decrease confidence

. Example: satisfaction if penalty is scored and disappointment if it isn’t. Increased future confidence if outcome is successful, possible decreased confidence if outcome is poor

Question 73

. What is self efficacy?

Answer 73

. The confidence we have in specific situations

Question 74

. What is Bandura’s theory of self efficacy?

. Include: 4 types of info

Answer 74

. Expectations of self efficacy depend on:

> Performance accomplishments: a reminder of previous successes in related skill or situation

> Vicarious experiences: watching others perform the skill in question

> Verbal persuasion: convincing athlete of their ability to perform the skill

> Emotional arousal: the evaluation the performer makes of a physiological state

Question 75

. Describe Bandura’s theory of self -efficacy:

Answer 75

Question 76

. What are the characteristics of an effective leader?

Answer 76

. Good communication skills

. High motivation

. Enthusiasm

. Clear goal or vision of what needs to be achieved

. Empathy

. Comprehensive knowledge of sport/ being good at sport

. Charisma

Question 77

. What is an emergent leader?

Answer 77

. Becomes a leader through hard work and determination

. People look up to, respect and help to become a leader

. May be skilful in their sport and become leader to show others how well they can do and inspire team mates

Question 78

. What is a prescribed leader?

Answer 78

. Someone appointed by people of a higher authority

. Example: Gareth Southgate was appointment manager of England men’s football team by football association in 2016

Question 79

State the different leadership styles:

Answer 79

. Authoritarian

. Democratic

. Laissez- faire

Question 80

Authoritarian leadership:

. Include: description and explanation of when used

Answer 80

. Task-oriented and dictator style

. Leader makes all the decisions and is very direct in their approach

. Used when discipline or control isn’t needed

. Used with hostile groups or if there’s a lack of time

. Used if situation is dangerous or task is clear

. Novice performance and male performers like this style

Question 81

. Democratic leadership:

Answer 81

. Person-orientated

. Takes into account team members’ ideas and feelings

. Leader shows interest in others

. Used when group members want to be involved in decision making

. Used if situation isn’t dangerous and task required greater interpersonal communication

. Used with small teams or Individuals

. Used with advanced performers and females like this style

Question 82

. Laissez-faire leadership:

Answer 82

. Leader provides little support or input

. Lets team member do as they wish

. Used with high- level performers or elite athletes

. Used with developing creativity for team members

. Used when leader can fully trust member capabilities

. Used when group is being assessed

. Used if leader is incompetent

Question 83

. State the theories of leadership:

Answer 83

. Trait theory

. Social learning theory (SLT)

. Interactionist theory

Question 84

. Trait theory- leadership theory:

. Include: explanation and evaluation

Answer 84

. Leaders are born with their leadership qualities

. Traits are stable and enduring and can be generalised across different situations

. Popular belief that ‘great leaders are born not made’. Leaders have characteristics that make them effective

. People in sport tend to be quite specific in their leadership skills, which works against the generalised trait approach

Question 85

. Social learning theory (SLT)- leadership theory:

Answer 85

. Leadership characteristics can be learned from other

. Behaviour of others is watched and copied- vicarious learning

. High status models are more likely to be copied. This theory shows the importance of social environment for adopting leadership qualities, rather than trait approach which doesn’t take environment into account

Question 86

. Interactionist theory- leadership theory:

Answer 86

. An individual may have certain in-born traits, such as assertiveness, but they’re not evident unless a situation (state) demands the leadership behaviour

. This theory accounts for the fact that people may not be leaders in everyday life but show leadership qualities in sports situations

Question 87

. What does Chelladurai’s model state?

Answer 87

. The more the elements of this model match each other, the more effective the leadership is likely to be

. If leadership qualities are what the group members want and expect, the they’re more likely to follow the leader

. If leadership style matches situation, leadership is likely to be more effective

Question 88

. Describe Chelladurai’s model:

Answer 88

Question 89

. Describe and explain the features of Chelladurai’s model:

*HINT* There are 7

Answer 89

1. Situational characteristics: environmental conditions e.g. activity (football, rock climbing), number of people in group, time constraints, strength of oppositon, etc
2. Leader characteristics: the personality/skill level/experience of leader. Leader may have preferred style of leadership
3. Member characteristics: what is the group like? Skill level/attitudes/experiences/age/personalities
4. Required behaviour: what style of leadership is needed for this task? The situation (and member characteristics) dictates appropriate style of leadership
5. Actual behaviour: what does the leader actually choose to do? The behaviour the leader displays as a result of situation and member characteristics and the leader characteristics
6. Preferred behaviour: what leadership style do the group prefer? Member characteristics (and situation) dictate appropriate style of leadership
7. Performance and satisfaction: the overall performance of members and leader and level of satisfaction.

Question 90

Define stress:

Answer 90

. In sport, stress is more often linked to negative feelings and can be seen as a psychological state produced and perceived by physiological and psychological forces acting on our sense of well-being

Question 91

. What are stressors?

Answer 91

. Stressors are environmental changes that induce a stress response

. They generally arise when there’s an imbalance between person’s perception of demand being made on them by situation and their ability to meet that demand

Question 92

Name some stressors that cause stress:

*HINT* There are 4 points

Answer 92

. Competition (powerful stressor)

. Conflict (with other players or opposition)

. Frustration (with your own or team members’ performance)

. Climate (excessively hot or cold)

Question 93

. What are 2 types of state anxiety related to stress?

Answer 93

. Cognitive anxiety (stress response of mind)

. Somatic anxiety (stress response of body)

Question 94

. Give description and evaluation of cognitive stress management techniques:

. *HINT* There are 7 points

Answer 94

. Mental rehearsal: recalling movement experiences from memory or creating a mental picture of new experiences. Forming a mental image of skill you’re about to perform e.g. seeing yourself score the goal

. Evaluation: For a novice it may help improve confidence and control arousal.

. Research has shown it can create optimism in performance

. Positive thinking/positive self talk: used to motivate and ‘psyche up’, being positive about past performance, by talking to yourself can help confidence and performance e.g. saying to yourself ‘I’m going to score today!’

. Evaluation: it’s only of value if performer is experienced and of high standard

. Goal setting: setting SMART goals can break tasks downs and reduce levels of anxiety. Setting short-term goals which can lead to long-term will make performers feel in ck troll and less stressed.

. Evaluation: goals need to be clearly defined and decisions shared

performers should be aware of outcome, performance and process goals

. Negative thought stopping: instructions aimed at halting negativity, e,g, stopping feeling like ‘I can’t score’

. Evaluation: individuals prone to learned helplessness may find stopping negative thoughts difficult

. Rational thinking: challenging any negative thoughts by looking at logical and real aspects of situation

. Evaluation: perception is key because it’s the interpretation of situation that dictates level of stress the performer experiences

. Mindfulness: therapeutic technique often involving meditation- concerns our environmental awareness and relationships with others at particular point in time.

. Evaluation: can lead to ‘peak flow experience’ of zone of optimal functioning

. Imagery- external (seeeing yourself from outside your body) and internal (seeing yourself from within): can help improve concentration and develop confidence. Involves formation of mental pictures often related to actual activity. Can be visual, auditory, kinaesthesic or emotional

. Evaluation: internal imagery is more effective than external

. To be effective you must practise in relaxed environment, key exercises short but frequent and set goals for each session

Question 95

. Give a description and evaluation of somatic stress management techniques:

.*HINT* There are 4

Answer 95

. Centering: combines somatic and cognitive responses- similar to mindfulness because you focus on here and now. Concentration is shifted to centre of body . Through Centering athlete will redirect energy to body and achieve calm steady state

. Evaluation: skill needs to be mastered, focusing on breathing

. Requires regular practice so it can be used automatically

. Progressive muscular relaxation: ‘Jacobsen technique’. Athletes have to learn to be ‘aware’ of tension in muscles and ‘let it go’. Gradually muscle groups should combine until whole body can be relaxed on one command

. Evaluation: take longer than self-directed relaxation, but is thought to be more effective

. Biofeedback: performers are taught to control muscular tension by relaxing specific muscles showing tension in a machine. Degree of tension is noted by sound machine makes- linking feeling with noise, performer can eventually identify tension without assistance.

. Breathing control: slow deep breaths ensure you get enough oxygen and feel more relaxed and in control.

. Evaluation: can be helpful as part of a routine e.g. between serves in tennis